VILNIAUS PEDAGOGINIS UNIVERSITETAS FILOLOGIJOS FAKULTETAS KALBA IR KONTEKSTAI Mokslo darbai 2009 m. III (1) tomas 2009, Vilnius

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1 VILNIAUS PEDAGOGINIS UNIVERSITETAS FILOLOGIJOS FAKULTETAS KALBA IR KONTEKSTAI Mokslo darbai 2009 m. III (1) tomas 2009, Vilnius

2 ISSN Mokslo darbų,,kalba ir kontekstai III tomas apsvarstytas Filologijos fakulteto Tarybos posėdyje (protokolo Nr. 5) ir rekomenduotas spaudai. Redaktorių kolegija / Editorial Board Atsakingoji redaktorė / Editor-in-Chief Doc. dr. Ernesta Račienė Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas (Filologija 04H) Vilnius Pedagogical University (Philology 04 H) Atsakingosios redaktorės pavaduotojas / Vice-Editor-in-Chief Doc. dr. Linas Selmistraitis Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas (Filologija 04H) Vilnius Pedagogical University (Philology 04 H) Nariai / Members Dr. Klaus Geyer DAAD lektorius, Vokietija (Filologija 04 H) DAAD lecturer, Germany (Philology 04 H) Prof. habil dr. Jean-Pierr Levet Limožo universitetas, Prancūzija (Filologija 04 H) University of Limoge, France (Philology 04 H) Doc. dr. Daiva Verikaitė Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas (Filologija 04 H) Vilnius Pedagogical University (Philology 04 H) Prof. dr. Susan McKinney Centrinės Floridos universitetas, JAV (Edukologija, 07 S) Andersen University Central Florida, USA (Educology, 07 S) Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas, 2009

3 VILNIUS PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF PHILOLOGY LANGUAGE IN DIFFERENT CONTEXTS Research papers 2009 Volume III (1) Vilnius, 2009

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5 Turinys I. Žodis ir kontekstas / The Word in the Context Anna Hoyer How to Signal Identity Linguistic and Cultural Cues in a Popular Scottish Comic...11 Kaip išreikšti tautinę tapatybę: kalbinės ir kultūrinės užuominos populiariame škotiškame komikse...21 Diana Babušytė Was ist ein Europäismus? Sprachwissenschaftliche Aspekte seiner Definition...23 Kas yra europeizmas? Lingvistiniai apibrėžimo aspektai...31 Janina Buitkienė Linguistic Realization of Power Relations in Decontextualized Situations...32 Valios raiškos lingvistinė realizacija situacijose be konteksto...38 Marija Liudvika Drazdauskienė Aspects of Sophistication in English Speech...39 Tikslios reikšmės aspektai anglų kalboje...46 Gražina Droessiger Zur Rolle der Substantive als Ausdrucksmittel der Vermutung und Ungewissheit in der Gesprächssorte Interview...47 Daiktavardžių vaidmuo išreiškiant abejonę bei netikrumą pokalbio rūšyje interviu...57 Ilmera Kauklytė, Linas Selmistraitis Employment of Personifying and Dehumanising Metaphors in Carry On, Jeeves by P.G. Wodehouse...58 Įasmeninančios ir nuasmeninančios metaforos P.G. Wodehouse romane Carry On, Jeeves...68 Éva Kovács The Impact of English on Present-day German...69 Anglų kalbos įtaka šiuolaikinei vokiečių kalbai...77

6 Sonata Bistrickytė, Lina Inčiuraitė The Use of Technical Terms among Engineering Students at Lithuanian University of Agriculture...78 Techninių terminų vartojimas Lietuvos žemės ūkio universiteto inžinerijos studentų kalboje...84 II. Tekstas ir pragmatika / Text and Pragmatics Nida Burneikaitė Evaluative Metadiscourse in Linguistics Master s Theses in English L1 & L Vertinamasis metadiskursas kalbotyros magistro darbuose...95 Izolda Genienė On the Diversity of the Modernist Literary Discourse...96 Modernistinio, literatūrinio diskurso įvairovė Ágnes Herczeg-Deli Interactive Knowledge in Dialogue Sąveikos žinios dialoge Irina Liokumoviča Towards Written Scientific-Technical Discourse Analysis: Statistical and Transformational Methods Apie rašytinio mokslinio techninio teksto analizę: statistiniai ir transformaciniai metodai Rūta Sirvydė The Smile of Eyes Akių šypsena Solveiga Sušinskienė The Realization of the Finite Process in the Matrix Proposition with Embedded Nominalizations in English Scientific Discourse Propozicijų-matricų su įterptomis veiksmažodinėmis nominalizacijomis asmenuojamosios veiksmažodžio formos realizavimas moksliniame tekste Daiva Verikaitė Deictic Reference in Written Discourse Deiktinė referencija rašytiniame diskurse...143

7 III. Svetimų kalbų mokymas / Foreign Language Teaching Laimutė Dantienė, Irena Sagaitienė, Nijolė Slaminskienė Landeskunde der deutschsprachigen Länder im virtuellen Daf-Unterricht Vokiškai kalbančių šalių pažinimas mokant/is vokiečių kalbos virtualioje aplinkoje Claudia Finner, Britta Stöckmann Projektvorstellung Entwicklung eines Brettspiels zur Vermittlung interkultureller Fähigkeiten in der (Wirtschafts-) Kommunikation am Beispiel Deutschland-Polen Projekto pristatymas žaidimas, skirtas tarpkultūriniams gebėjimams perteikti komunikuojant ekonomikos tema (remiantis Vokietijos ir Lenkijos pavyzdžiu) Klaus Geyer Sprachstandmessung und Lernfortschritte Litauischer Studierender im Fach Deutsch: eine Vergleichende Analyse Mittels C-Test-Ergebnissen Lietuvos universitetų vokiečių specialybės studentų kalbos mokėjimo lygio ir mokymosi pažangos nustatymas: C testo rezultatų lyginamoji analizė Ewa Grobelska, Anna Olkiewicz ESP as a Part of the English Language Course at University Reflections of a Practitioner Dėstytojo praktiko mintys apie anglų kalbą specialiesiems tikslams kaip sudėtinę universitetinio anglų kalbos kurso dalį Regina Jocaitė Cultural Discourse in the Context of Foreign Language Teaching / Learning Kultūrinis diskursas užsienio kalbos mokymo/-si kontekste Jacek Karpiński Auf dem Weg zu einer Mitteleuropäischen Niederlandistik... Konzept des neuen Berufsorientierten Joint-Bachelor-Studiums Dutch Language, Literature And Culture In A Central European Context (DCC) Pakeliui į Centrinės Europos nyderlandistiką Naujos profesinės jungtinės bakalauro studijų programos Olandų kalba, literatūra ir kultūra Centrinės Europos kontekste metmenys...208

8 Christine Lechner CLIL: European Developments leading to a Skill-Based Model for Teacher Education Integruotas dalyko ir užsienio kalbos mokymas europinės naujovės, skatinančios įgūdžiais paremto modelio taikymą mokytojų rengime Joachim Liedtke Zur Optimierung der pädagogisch-didaktischen Prämissen gelingenden Fremdsprachenlehrens und lernens. Eine Vergleichsstudie zwischen den USA und Schweden Sėkmingo užsienio kalbų mokymo/-si pedagoginių didaktinių prielaidų optimizavimas. JAV ir Švedijos lyginamoji studija Mirosław Pawlak Using the European Language Portfolio in Teacher Training Europos kalbų aplanko naudojimas mokytojų rengime Lina Pilypaitytė Forderungen der europäischen Sprachenpolitik an den Fremdsprachenunterricht Europos kalbų politikos iššūkiai užsienio kalbų mokyme...250

9 I. ŽODIS IR KONTEKSTAS / THE WORD IN THE CONTEXT

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11 How to Signal Identity Linguistic and Cultural Cues in a Popular Scottish Comic Anna Hoyer Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Wilhelm- Röpke-Straße 6d, Marburg, Germany, hoyera@staff.unimarburg.de Abstract Oor Wullie, also known as, Our little William, is a comic which has been published by the Scottish Sunday Post since It is a central element of Scottish popular culture. Dudley Watkins, the original artist, was not drafted for military service because the nation profited enormously from Oor Wullie, which served not only an entertaining, but also a unifying and supportive function. As part of the Tartan Day festivities in April 2004, Oor Wullie, the protagonist, was voted the most important Scottish icon of the year. The article will analyse the Scottish comic series from a sociolinguistic and cultural perspective. With its Scottish themes, language and humour, Oor Wullie is appealing to the entire social and age spectrum. The partly nostalgic representation of the Scots language supports the group identity of the nation by reminding its readers of their cultural good, which was once a full working language. The contact between Scots and Scottish English becomes apparent. The analysis shows that Scots language features are decreasing as opposed to English ones. Reasons can be found in the vanishing of Scots language features in general. Furthermore, in the comics, the nostalgic Doric, the variety of the Scottish north east, is losing its status as a linguistic role model, while linguistic features of the Central Belt around the urban centres of Glasgow and Edinburgh are gaining ground. This has to do with the struggle of the print media and their orientation towards the tastes of the readers: too overtly nostalgic features are being avoided. As it would be expected by contentious history, in general, the Scottish people do not particularly like the English. Oor Wullie is, however, not designed for an exclusively Scottish audience. The Sunday Post also sells well in England, especially in the north. Clearly, the publishing company wants to attract English readers as well as Scottish. The comics are not politically or ideologically biased; they are simply designed as recognisably Scottish without being anti-english. The construction of identity operates less via pointing out the contra-poles (e.g., England versus Scotland) but by drawing attention to the inherent Scottishness of the characters and setting. Keywords: Scotland, comics, identity, stereotypes, Tartan, Kailyard, Hardman, improvising Scot. 11

12 INTRODUCTION Oor Wullie, the iconic series of comics about the adventures of a ten-year old schoolboy, has been published since 1936 by the The Sunday Post (DC Thomson, Dundee), in Dundee, Scotland s most popular Sunday paper. Despite this, there has not been a great deal of scholarly attention given to it; the earliest research on Oor Wullie was done by George Rosie in In 1996, DC Thomson itself released some background information on both Oor Wullie and The Broons, the series which appears on a double page with Oor Wullie. The comics are further mentioned in studies focussing on linguistic aspects exhibited in Scottish literature, e.g. Corbett (1997:188) and Görlach (2002:185), in connection with language and stereotypes. The most recent analysis of Oor Wullie s publishing history can be found in Maureen Farrell s article The Lost Boys and Girls of Scottish Children s Fiction (2006: ). Elsewhere, I have investigated in detail the dynamics of Scottish stereotypes on the level of content, the linguistic changes within the comic over the long period of its publication, and the various mechanisms of Oor Wullie s success (see bibliography). This particular article will touch upon each of these topics, offering a brief but comprehensive introduction and summation of current status to the reader. 1. AN EXAMPLE A representative example of an Oor Wullie story can be found in the autumn of 1944 (The Sunday Post, ). This was, of course, the penultimate year of World War II; as such, rationing and supply shortages had led to hunger being firmly established as a constant companion to many. The premise of the story is thus both timely and simple, allowing for easy identification with the protagonist, 10-year-old Wullie. Hungry like most, he envies his friend, Fat Bob, who has received a pie as a present from Jeannie, an admirer. Naturally, Wullie tries to find a way to attract the girl s attention so that she will give him a pie as well. During his wanderings, he passes a statue of Robert Burns, the Scottish national poet. Such an iconic hero, Wullie surmises, must obviously have known how to live successfully. In imitation of this role model, Wullie decides to write a poem for the girl. His first attempt is a marked failure. Jeannie chases Wullie away and, adding insult to injury, throws an empty casserole dish after him. Undeterred, he takes this dish to a bramble bush, (i.e. a blackberry bush ), and picks some berries while thinking of a better poem. He then returns to Jeannie with the second attempt at poetry: When from thee wi the pot I fled, I to a bramble bush was led. For the love of Thee I picked the fruit, To give to you, my sweet toot-toot! Oh Jeannie Mc Kay, Jeannie Mc Kay! What aboot a wee meat pie? 12

13 The new poem and the addition of the pot of blackberries is far more successful. Jeannie is so pleased that she gives Wullie not one but two pies as a reward. He eats them both whilst enthroned on his bucket in front of the statue which so inspired him. As champion of the virtues of simple life, love, food and drink, Burns was an impoverished farmer who became a national hero much like Wullie here, the poet s life, which seemed to have been destined to lead only to crushing defeat, has been turned into a complete victory. Being clever, Wullie very often manages to make something out of nothing: again like Burns, and again like the Scottish conception (see below). Though Wullie s victory is hardly the stuff of legends, he has on this occasion distanced himself from hunger and misery, even if only by one step. Because of this, he has gained recognition as well as praise for his cleverness just like Wullie s role model, Robert Burns. As a stand-in for the audience, Wullie shows the average Scot what he or she could aspire to; that the spirit of all Burns represents still lives within them, and this positive reinforcement of Scottish identity not only helps the audience want to identify with the young protagonist but also brings both hope and pride to a people under duress. Thus, after five long years of war, the readers of Oor Wullie could sit in their homes in 1944 and simply enjoy the comic. For a short time, they could forget their povertystricken lives and enter into a carefree world with the help of a boy who was to become the greatest national icon 60 years later. What Burns did with his works of depicting simple life, publisher DC Thomson does with short stories of a wee lad from a simple working-class family. Wullie may not know the manners and language of celebrities, but both despite and because of this, he is a celebrity himself, thoroughly embraced by the Scots as one of their own. 2. ORIGINS AND COMPOSITION The flagship edition of DC Thomson s newspapers and magazines is the Sunday paper, founded in 1914 in Glasgow as the Post Sunday Special and produced under the name Sunday Post since On 8 March 1936, The Broons and Oor Wullie first came about as a response to American newspaper funnies. Robert Duncan Low, the chief editor of several children s publications, created the character Oor Wullie, while the Nottingham-born artist Dudley Dexter Watkins ( ) designed the characters and acted as illustrator. During Watkins era, members of DC Thomson s staff submitted written outlines for the strips each week, competing to be printed in the Sunday Post as the weekly cartoon. Because of this policy, Watkins and the authors continuously improved the quality of both comics. After the double page of The Broons and Oor Wullie had proven successful in the Sunday Post, DC Thomson satisfied the rising demand for the series by publishing annual collections, with the first being printed in Since then, both an Oor Wullie and a Broons annual have been published alternately every autumn. Underscoring the importance of the comic to Scotland and its people, the artist was exempted from military service in World War II the nation s wartime morale was so 13

14 increased by both The Broons and Oor Wullie that the authorities did not want to risk losing the series unifying and supportive force. After Watkins death in 1969, it took over seven years for DC Thomson to find a cartoonist who could satisfy readers demands. During this time, the publisher kept the regular string of Oor Wullie and The Broons comics alive by reprinting old stories every Sunday, and each year in the annuals. This helped to keep the double comic page of the Sunday Post alive until a new cartoonist was finally found. From the late 1970s to 1997 Ken H. Harrison drew the cartoons; later, Peter Davidson took over the job, while the current illustrator is Tom Morton. All of these artists introduced their own small changes, but kept the essence and visual character of the series alive so that Oor Wullie is still seen by most Scots as a living national icon. 3. OOR WULLIE S STATUS With its language and content (see below), Oor Wullie contributes to a sense of Scottish identity. This has always been one of the secrets of the series success; something which can be easily seen when one considers the following facts. Reading the Broons and Oor Wullie was ranked among the 100 Things to Do in Scotland before You Die (see bibliography) by the Glasgow Herald. Old annuals are now considered extremely valuable examples of cultural history and nostalgic treasures, and are frequently sold for as much as Both Oor Wullie s and Watkins own iconic status were further underlined when, in 2002, a family moved into Watkins former home in Dundee and discovered murals on the walls which the artist presumably drew for his own children. These private works of art have now been officially recognized as a national treasure, and consequently the wall is now owned by the Scottish National Trust. Furthermore, as part of the Tartan Day festivities in April 2004, Oor Wullie was voted the most important Scottish icon. Thus the status of Wullie as a representation of Scots and Scotland cannot be denied. At least four factors are responsible for the striking effect Oor Wullie has had on Scottish readership, though the first two hold true for many comics. First, the structure and symbols of the comics are consistent. For example, it is the norm for Wullie to address the reader directly in a short prologue or epilogue. Several stories begin in this way and then subsequently end with Wullie sitting on his trademark bucket, which has become the symbol of Wullie s cleverness and ability to improvise. Similar symbols that support his main character traits include Wullie s rough but practical dungarees, his self-made wooden cart and the shed where Wullie, the inventor, creates new things to entertain and amuse. This creates a familiarity for the reader, increasing the likelihood for identification. The direct address of the audience also can reinforce the idea that Wullie and the reader are both part of the same in-group. Secondly, the mechanism of what Konrad Lorenz (1943: ) has termed Kindchenschema leads to an intensive identification with the protagonist. The character s round cheeks and big smile are an invitation to identify with him. Oor Wullie s childlike characteristics are, however, dealt with in a relatively realistic style, and have sometimes 14

15 been interpreted as showing traces of middle age. For example, his big face is less smooth than that of young children; with traces of laugh lines or crows feet around the eyes, Wullie s face does to some degree more closely resemble that of adults. Although this has been the case since the launch of the series, numerous readers have speculated that perhaps Wullie himself has aged along with his comic and his audience. But, it should be argued, the figures in comics have to be universal in order to enable identification with them by a disparate readership. Despite the fact that many of Oor Wullie s readers are middle-aged, it is very unlikely that the hero is meant to appear older than other young comic heroes for the purpose of attracting the readers attention. It seems more likely that the readers are projecting their own new maturity onto their beloved icon, seeing themselves in him. This projection reinforces the close connection between the Scottish audience and the character. Thirdly, both the character s attributes and the comic s storylines are specifically Scottish, which means that they are easily recognisable to the readers and become additional items of identification. This is shown by the frequent portrayal of Scottish inventiveness in the main characters, but it also shapes the plot-lines, which are often firmly linked to Scottish life and festivities. The editorial board considers a recognizably Scottish setting to be a requirement. This is in direct contrast to other comic series like Tintin, which include foreign adventures, rather than always being set in the home country of the protagonist. This lack of external influences leads to the establishment and maintenance of not only a Scotland-specific comic but also reflects a Scots-centric worldview. This reinforces Scottish identity by resisting the urge to present a more global view of Scotland by foreigners (with the exception of the English; see below) and also makes certain that even the most homebound Scots are not presented with anything very much outside their direct experience. Lastly, the language used in Oor Wullie is very convincingly Scottish, even for the readership in Scotland. This aspect of cultural identification is owed to the subtle orthographical representation of the Scottish accent in the dialogue, along the same lines as what Allan Bell (1948:187ff) has termed in-group referee design. By use of Scots forms in the comic, the authors are using language as an expressive instrument for the declaration of identity. This then signals to the audience you and I are an in-group, acting as a positive reinforcement of Scottishness for the audience. This positive reinforcement must be seen in relation to the linguistic inferiority complex suffered by Scots. First described by Ronald K. Macaulay (1977), this belief that Scottish English makes the Scots as being somehow inferior to those speaking other dialects of English (e.g., the received pronunciation) causes the Scots to hesitate before they speak. This is illustrated in the following quotation: The accent of the lowest state of Glaswegians is the ugliest accent one can encounter [...] (ibid:94). Problems relating to this can be seen in school and in job interviews, where dialect can precipitate discrimination. Epithets such as slovenly, vulgar, and coarse are commonly used to characterise Scots based solely upon their speech. 15

16 These aspects show the capacity for great identification with Wullie for the average Scot. This is both positive and negative; while the Scots may view Wullie as a representation of themselves, even to the point of projecting their own aging upon him, there is still the tension caused by the external perception of their culture. Thus the stress with both the recognisable linguistic characteristics, as well as with the stereotypes of the in-group as portrayed by the comic, leads to the readers laughing at the working-class boy but also at themselves. When this last is realised, it can lead to a questioning or tension with the Scots own cultural identity. In a positive light, however, like all art and media, the comic reflects its own society and environment and allows the discerning reader to examine their own thoughts and beliefs about who they are. 4. STEREOTYPES OF CONTENT Four main stereotypes appear in Oor Wullie. The first is that of the vital Highlander, or the image of the strong and rebellious Scot which often appears in 19 th -century romantic views on the Middle Ages, e.g. in Sir Walter Scott s novels Waverley (1814) and Rob Roy (1817). Oor Wullie represents this, for example, during his fights with other children when he acts out imaginary scenes from medieval battles. The identification of this representative of average Scottishness with the Scottish heroes of old also serves to reinforce cultural identity by tying the present to past national glories, with the implication that, in future, prominence can be reclaimed. The second stereotype is that of the Kailyard, in fact a derogatory term that harkens back to a specific nostalgic genre of Scottish literature extremely popular from about 1880 to The name refers to the little cabbage gardens behind the modest Scottish tenement houses which have become the domestic symbol of the petit-bourgeois reaction against industrialisation. This is best embodied by The Broons, the harmonious Scottish family often depicted in front of the fireplace. Though occurring less frequently than the Broons, Wullie is sometimes shown enjoying the cosy atmosphere with his reliable family members and his mother s home-made meals, even if it is only porridge being served. The third stereotype of significance is the Hardman. This is the archetypal strong, sweaty Glaswegian worker with his cigarette and smoke-roughened voice. Imitation of this stereotype shows e.g. in situations where Wullie tries to impress the boys and girls during street fights, and many of the early stories picture him smoking in secret from time to time. This does not occur, however, in more recent stories because of modern regulations which prevent the representation of harmful, real-world acts in family-friendly media; these regulations exist to prevent young readers from harming themselves by imitating Wullie. Finally, there is the Improvising Scot with his cleverness, who, though admittedly not unique to Oor Wullie but also present in other comics like Donald Duck or Tintin, is routinely part of the comic. This stereotype can be seen in Wullie s repeated examples which show his gift for improvisation; for example, when he fills his bucket with water 16

17 and uses it as a shower, or to warm or cool his feet. This ability can be seen to an even greater extent when he employs his self-made wooden cart for various jobs, e.g. for carrying tourist s luggage. Interestingly, the Scottish can easily identify with the Improvising Scot stereotype, perhaps because it can be regarded as the inside perspective of the mean/stingy Scot stereotype which so dominates the foreign perception of Scotland but almost never occurs in Oor Wullie. Both spring from the same source, namely the scarcity of Scottish resources in contrast to England s wealth. From a foreign perspective, the scarcity of resources has been turned into the negative, where, at its worst, it represents stinginess. On the other hand, from the Scottish point of view it expresses the skill to improvise from whatever materials are at hand. Both views are important in Scottish identity the external discriminatory pressure forces them together, reinforcing the in-group concept and also gives a sense of pride and strength through adversity, even though it is currently not the most politically powerful nation in the United Kingdom. One of the traditional traits of the Scottish is that they do not particularly like the English. This is predominantly based upon their contentious history, as well as the continuing belief that the Scots are looked down upon by their southern neighbours (see above). And yet Oor Wullie is not by any means designed for an exclusively Scottish audience the Sunday Post also sells quite well in England, especially in the north. Clearly, the publishing company does not want to alienate those readers by espousing a hard-line anti-english rhetoric in order to appeal strongly to this traditional Scottish antipathy. The comics are not politically or ideologically biased; they are simply designed as recognisably Scottish without being anti-english. The construction of identity operates less by pointing out the contra-poles (e.g., England versus Scotland) but instead by drawing attention to the inherent Scottishness of the characters and setting. This will be illustrated in the following two examples. In the story from , an English family has moved into town. The reader may notice that it is the family of the original artist, Dudley Watkins. At first, Wullie, dressed in his Highland costume, wants to hit the kids to demonstrate that the English children are not welcome in Scotland, but he becomes cowardly. Then, one of the tall English girls kneels down to Wullie s standing height while Wullie shouts out Ach! I wid clout baith the fower o ye, ye re sic a set o nyaffs! But I m fell busy the noo! The girls like Wullie s talking so quaint, mistake his Scottish English for Gaelic, and, of course, also assume that Wullie s traditional kilt is a skirt. Intrigued by the exoticism of this display of Scottishness, the English children decide to invite Wullie and his friend to a party. When Wullie arrives in his everyday dungarees and boots, the English do not recognise him and are disappointed. Hullo? they say. Who are you? We don t know you! Get out of here! It s a little Scots boy in a kilt we want at our party! After some protest, Wullie gives in and changes into his Highland costume. He and his friend are talked into doing a Highland Jig on crossed swords and receive compliments from the English from this demonstration of Scottish traditions. In the end, Wullie figures, Och! The English are no sae bad! 17

18 The story illustrates the exotic flair of Scottishness, which sells well in and outside of Scotland. It is shocking, however, that Wullie is browbeaten by the tall English children and that he plays the Scottish clown for the English newcomers. Perhaps this should be seen as an example of Scottish hospitality and pride in their traditional customs? Yet this particular story does not seem to demonstrate much of that pride; it seems almost to do the exact opposite. Perhaps it represents the Scottish nation giving in slightly in order to keep the peace with the English; whether this was seen by the author as a positive or negative act is unclear. The explanation could be simpler, however; as the English family is Watkins own, it could be autobiographical to some degree. At any rate, the comic does point out certain tensions between both internal and external interpretations of the Scottish and the English identities, as well as demonstrating a certain discomfort about who the Scottish might become as a people in the wake of increasing English contact. In a certain other situation, the antipathy between England and Scotland is used to enhance sporting ambitions in the Oor Wullie stories. In a story from 1998 (page 54), Wullie has the chance to take part in a training session with the famous rugby player Gavin Hastings. In order to focus Wullie s strength and concentration when the trainer wants Wullie to kick the ball extremely hard, he says Just pretend you re playing against England. This is just one of many examples of the famous Scottish antipathy toward England being expressed in a very playful way, as opposed to aggressively. This supports the above assertion that the comic writers believe that the Scottish and English can and should co-exist peacefully, without either abandoning their own heritage. 5. LINGUISTIC STEREOTYPES Since 1977, a linguistic inferiority complex has been described by Macaulay, which can cause the Scots to hesitate before speaking (see above). Scots has rarely appeared in newspapers, except in articles which mainly deal with either the language itself or with informal topics; it has not been considered appropriate for formal writing. However, it has to be said that there has been an upsurge of Scots in experimental literature since the mid-1980s in both prose (e.g. Irvine Welsh and James Kelman), and, especially, in poetry (e.g. Tom Leonard and Robert Crawford). This has partly been influenced by the upsurge of Scottish self-consciousness around 1990, when Glasgow was the European Capital of Culture. Finding the right measure of Scottishness in language and content is difficult; however, Oor Wullie has managed this successfully. Many Scots-specific features not only occur repeatedly, but have been increasing over the years, e.g. the negative suffix -nae in words such as cannae cannot. There are also very stable features, e.g. ye you and words with the characteristic Scottish long monophthong, e.g. oot out. However, there are a significant number of these features which have been decreasing in their frequency, e.g. the negative suffix -na, and Wullie s exclamation jings gosh, gee, goodness. Many words display the negative suffix -na and -nae, as in doesna and doesnae doesn t. Words with the suffix nae increase in comparison to those with -na. This diminishing 18

19 use of -na is one of the most striking features in Oor Wullie. That form appears earlier in the history of the language and has its origins in the Northeast of Scotland, i.e. the area around Aberdeen. This region is often described as spotting the most archaic rural Scots, and this region is thus referred to as Doric. In contrast to this, -nae is associated with the densely populated, industrial Central Belt around the urban areas of Glasgow and Edinburgh, and consequently has strong working class connotations. The change from -na to -nae may reflect the socio-cultural and economic development within Scotland as well as the change in orientation of the readers. The comics are still published in the north-eastern town of Dundee, although the Northeast has lost much of its traditional economical importance to Glasgow, Edinburgh and the Silicon Glen in between. In the first decades of Oor Wullie, the north-eastern variant -na was dominant because the North-eastern dialects then best represented the image of an essentially rural country. In the second half of the 20 th century, -nae has taken over, parallel to a shift of the nation s self-perception from a nostalgic image of rural purity to increasingly confident working-class urbanism. The trend towards -nae also reflects the tendency to adjust the language of the comic to a wider readership based mainly in the Central Belt; away from the local and towards the general. It is also likely that the variant of the Central Belt area increases the metropolitan prestige in Oor Wullie and makes the characters appear more modern and more up to date. From time to time, Wullie and his friends are shown walking through the town with portable CD-players or exchanging information about recent sports events, for example. Thus one can see the ties between the use of language and culture over time; as Scotland s areas of influence changed, the dialect forms used in the series changed, creating an association between Scottishness and whatever areas are considered emblematic of the country at any given time, despite what forms are actually older. There are other factors which influence this linguistic change; the watering-down from the specifically nostalgic Doric towards the more central form also shows in the decrease of Scots-specific features in favour of English ones. A typical example is the rather dated Scottish jings meaning gosh, gee, goodness. In the early years of Oor Wullie, jings was frequently used, but has gradually decreased in later comics. In the 1980s, however, the occurrences again became more frequent when the editor decided to increase the Scottishness of the comics. Thus, the speech balloons were again full of jings, and the language was studded with other antiquated words. This tendency towards nostalgia also influenced the content. Suddenly, Wullie had a West Highland Terrier, he went hiking in the Highlands and attended traditional Scottish festivities such as the Highland Games or traditional dances. The Tartan and Kailyard stereotypes occurred with increasing frequency; this may reflect a trend towards the Tartan Industry in the 1980s. This changed again in the late 1990s when the editorial team regarded these alterations as too artificial and, in an attempt to attract younger readers, diluted the glaring Scotticisms which had been so dominant. Less nostalgia was regarded as more attractive to the readers, something which is also evident in the content. More contemporary topics occur as well, for example, sporting and cultural 19

20 events, with the writers clearly feeling that more realism in the language and setting will increase readership by increasing identifiability. This again goes back to ideas of identity; a falsely archaic representation of this young Scotsman turns him from a beloved icon to a caricature of himself. Instead of laughing with Wullie, the audience, English and Scottish both, would be laughing at him, making him a figure of ridicule. A more naturalistic portrayal returns the character to a representation of all that is common to the Scottish, with his foibles and troubles treated with loving amusement rather than harsh derision. 20 CONCLUSIONS Oor Wullie is rightly considered the iconic Scottish comic. Its defining characteristics, for the reasons described above, have made it easy for the average Scot to relate to the wee lad who is not only portrayed as existing within familiar surroundings but who also speaks their own Scots English. This identification has not been confined to the individual, however; it has been absorbed into the national consciousness, to the point of exempting its illustrator from military service in World War Two and even declaring his private artwork a public treasure. This absorption has not, however, led to stagnation. As stated above, infusions of new writers and illustrators have acted to update Oor Wullie with the times. Despite these changes, Oor Wullie is still as iconic as it has ever been. The authors try, however, to adjust the language and the content to the preferences of modern readers. This still includes a little dose of nostalgia, however. As far as the key stereotypes are concerned, there are increasing occurrences of the Hardman stereotype, and the Improvising Scot has remained a stable feature of the series from its origin. Despite deliberate use of stereotypes the authors of Oor Wullie take a great care to avoid producing scripts that are too overtly nostalgic, and that might be too artificial. All of these things cement Wullie s place as both a bringer and keeper of Scottish identity. He represents common positive cultural traits without being a caricature of them, either too self-congratulatory or too easily maligned, and he is able to present the Scots with a reflection of themselves which they cannot only examine, but enjoy. This pleasurable aspect is a key in allowing and encouraging the further investigation into comics and other art and media as representation of culture; one can only hope that this trend will continue. References 1. Bell, Allan Language Style as Audience Design. Language in Society 13: Corbett, John Language and Scottish Literature. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 3. Farrell, Maureen The Lost Boys and Girls of Scottish Children s Fiction. In: The Edinburgh History of Scottish Literature, eds, Ian Brown et al , Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

21 4. Görlach, Manfred A Textual History of Scots. Heidelberg: Winter. 5. Hoyer, Anne. The Scottishness of Oor Wullie. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Ruprecht-Karls Universität, Heidelberg, Thematische und sprachliche Veränderungen eines populären schottischen Zeitungscomics Gesellschaft für Comicforschung. de/tagungen/06nov/ 06nov_hoyer.pdf. 7. Thematic and linguistic changes of Oor Wullie: The Dynamics of a Popular Scottish Comic Scottish Archives 13, Thematische und sprachliche Veränderungen eines populären schottischen Zeitungscomic H.H. Lüger / H.E.H. Lenk (eds). Landauer Schriften zur Kommunikations- und Kulturwissenschaft (15). Landau: Verlag Empirische Pädagogik, (forthcoming). 9. Lorenz, Konrad Die Angeborenen Formen Möglicher Erfahrung. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 5: Macaulay, Ronald K. S Language, Social Class and Education: A Glasgow Study. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 11. McClure, J. Derrick Language. In Scottish Literary Journal: The Year s Work in Scottish Literary and Linguistic Studies, ed. Tom Crawford, Things to Do in Scotland before You Die The Sunday Herald, 28 March. < (accessed ). 13. Oor Wullie. Since The Sunday Post. Dundee: D.C. Thomson. 14. Oor Wullie Annuals. Since Glasgow: D.C. Thomson. 15. Oor Wullie Special Collections. Since Glasgow: D.C. Thomson. 16. Rosie, George The Secret World of the Comic Kings. The Private Life Of Lord Snooty: An investigation by George Rosie.The Sunday Times Magazine, 29 July. 17. A Scottish Success Story London: DC Thomson. Santrauka Kaip išreikšti tautinę tapatybę: kalbinės ir kultūrinės užuominos populiariame škotiškame komikse Anna Hoyer Oor Wullie, taip pat dar žinomas kaip Mūsų mažasis Viljamas, tai nuo 1936 metų škotiškame laikraštyje,,sunday Post spausdinamas komiksas, vienas iš pagrindinių škotų populiariosios kultūros elementų. Dudley Watkins, sukūręs šio komikso personažą ir pats piešęs komiksus, netgi buvo atleistas nuo karinės tarnybos, kad škotai ir toliau galėtų žavėtis,,oor Wullie, kuris atliko ne tik pramoginę, bet ir tautos dvasią vienijančią ir palaikančią funkciją metais nacionalinės šventės metu Oor Wullie, pagrindinis komiksų personažas, buvo išrinktas reikšmingiausiu škotų herojumi. Straipsnyje škotiškų komiksų serija analizuojama sociolingvistiniu ir kultūriniu požiūriais. Škotiška tematika, kalba ir humoru,,oor Wullie yra patrauklus visiems so- 21

22 cialiniams ir amžiaus sluoksniams. Iš dalies nostalgiškas požiūris į škotų kalbą apeliuoja į tautinį identitetą, primindamas skaitytojams jų kultūrines vertybes, tarp kurių yra ir anksčiau buvusi plačiai vartojama škotų kalba. Ryšys tarp Škotijos ir Škotijoje vartojamos anglų kalbos tampa akivaizdus. Analizė rodo, kad škotų kalbai būdingi bruožai nyksta, užleisdami vietą anglų kalbai. Plačiąja prasme priežastys glūdi nykstančioje škotų kalboje. Komiksuose Doric tarmė, kuri sutinkama Škotijos šiaurės rytuose, praranda savo statusą, kaip kalbos atmaina, tuo tarpu kalbos, kuri paplitusi teritorijose aplink Glazgo ir Edinburgo miestus, bruožai pradeda dominuoti. Tai susiję su kova, vykstančia spaudoje, ir spaudos pataikavimu skaitytojų skoniui: per daug atvirai išreikštų nostalgiškų kalbos bruožų stengiamasi vengti. Kaip matyti iš Škotijos istorijos škotams ne itin patinka anglų kalba. Tačiau,,Oor Wullie komiksai nėra išimtinai skirti škotiškai auditorijai.,,sunday Post gerai perkamas Anglijoje ir ypač šiaurinėje dalyje. Akivaizdu, jog leidyklos nori pritraukti tiek anglų skaitytojus, tiek škotus. Komiksai nėra politiškai ar ideologiškai neobjektyvūs. Jie tiesiog lengvai atpažįstami kaip škotiški, bet nėra nukreipti prieš Angliją. Tapatybės formavimas vyksta ne per priešiškų polių išryškinimą (pvz., Anglija prieš Škotiją), tačiau atkreipiant dėmesį į škotiškumui būdingus bruožus ir sąlygas. 22

23 Was ist ein Europäismus? Sprachwissenschaftliche Aspekte seiner Definition Diana Babušytė Pädagogische Universität Vilnius, Studentų Str. 39, LT-08106, Vilnius, Litauen, Abstract The constantly growing integration of Europe s politics, economy, and culture draws our attention also to its languages. Because of this, the discussion about Europeisms and their research has developed immensely during the last years. The aim of the paper is to consider the most significant theoretical and methodological approaches to this young but at the same time old field of research. With the help of an empirical research based on newspaper texts I will present the types of europeisms. A lexical comparison will be presented in 5 European languages. This will reveal how intermingled the European languages are, and how important europeisms are for the lexical and semantic development of European languages. Key words: Europäismen, Internationalismen, Nullsubstitution, Pseudonullsubstitution, Lehnübernahmen. Einleitung Die Intensivierung des europäischen Integrationsprozesses in politischen, wirtschaftlichen und kulturellen Bereichen hat zugleich dazu geführt, dass man nun auch dem Gemeinsamen zwischen den Sprachen Europas Aufmerksamkeit schenkt. So nimmt auch die Diskussion über Europäismen und Europäismenforschung in ganz Europa in den letzten Jahren immer mehr zu. Mein Anliegen ist es, bedeutende theoretische und methodische Ansätze dieser jungen und zugleich alten Forschungsrichtung darzustellen, den Terminus Internationalismus zu erklären und ihn vom Europäismus abzugrenzen. Anhand einer empirischen Untersuchung von Zeitungstexten werden in diesem Beitrag auch Typen von Europäismen präsentiert. Der lexikalische Vergleich erfolgt in fünf europäischen Sprachen: Deutsch, Englisch, Russisch, Ukrainisch und Litauisch. 1. Was ist ein Europäismus? Der Terminus Europäismus wird meistens in der linguistischen Literatur eher im Kontext der Internationalismenforschung als im Kontext speziell lexikalisch-semantischer Untersuchungen verwendet. Die meisten west- und osteuropäischen Sprachwissenschaftler identifizieren ihn mit solchen Termini wie Internationalismus, Entlehnung, 23

24 Fremdwort, Lehnwort. Ich bin der Meinung, dass Internationalismus als Terminus dem Europäismus am ähnlichsten ist. Wo gibt es aber Unterschiede? In der Erklärung eines Internationalismus bzw. eines Europäismus sollte man vor allem berücksichtigen, dass die ihn darstellenden Wörter nicht ein Wort, sondern mehrere Wörter sind, die gewisse formale und inhaltliche Übereinstimmungen aufweisen (vgl. Özen, 1994). In den meisten Wörterbüchern aber ist die Rede von einem Wort, z.b. Duden - Deutsches Universalwörterbuch 2001: Internationalismus ist ein Wort, das in gleicher Bedeutung u. gleicher od. ähnlicher Form in verschiedenen Kultursprachen vorkommt (z.b. Demokratie). Ein Internationalismus bzw. ein Europäismus kann nicht das eine Wort sein, das in mehreren Sprachen vorkommt. Man kann nicht sagen, dass das engl. energy oder russ. энергия ein Wort sind oder dass das lateinische Wort energia bzw. das griechische en-ergeia im Englischen und Russischen vorkommt. Wie es noch hier zu besprechen ist, setzt die Identifizierung eines Internationalismus bzw. Europäismus voraus, dass man die gegenwärtigen Wortschätze mehrerer Sprachen vergleicht. Und wenn man zum Vergleich mehrere Sprachen heranzieht, so kann man dann auch nicht von einem Wort reden, sondern von mehreren. Es gibt keine allgemein akzeptable Definition für die Internationalismen sowie für Europäismen. Internationalismen nennt man die aufgrund besonderer kultur- und wortgeschichtlicher Zusammenhänge tatsächlich weltweit verbreiteten Wörter wie zum Beispiel Schokolade, das so und ähnlich nicht nur in den indoeuropäischen Sprachen sondern auch im Arabischen, Japanischen, Suaheli usw. vorkommt. Bei Europäismen geht es vielmehr um die gemeinsamen Teile der Wortschätze der in Europa beheimateten germanischen, romanischen, slavischen und anderen Sprachen (vgl. Bergmann, 2008). Frohne (1991:50) gibt folgende Definition von Internationalismen: als lexikalische Internationalismen werden hier Benennungseinheiten genetisch verwandter Sprachen aufgefaßt, die eine im interlingualen Vergleich erkennbare formal-strukturelle Ähnlichkeit und eine völlig bzw. weitgehend übereinstimmende Bedeutungsstruktur besitzen. Buzássyová (1993:48) versteht unter Internationalismen überwiegend Wörter lateinischer oder griechischer Herkunft, die mindestens in drei nicht nahe verwandten Sprachen vorkommen. Palionis (1993:158) versteht unter einem lexikalischen Internationalismus eine in vielen Sprachen vorliegende Entlehnung, die stets mit einer ähnlichen speziellen Bedeutung auftritt. Bergmann (1995a) legt als einer der ersten seiner Internationalismusdefinition die Unterscheidung zwischen Internationalismen und Europäismen sowie die Mindestzahl der Vergleichssprachen zugrunde: Europäismus bezeichnet sprachliche Einheiten, die ausdrucksseitig und inhaltsseitig (gegebenfalls nur strukturell und inhaltsseitig) übereinstimmend oder ähnlich in mehreren Sprachen Europas vorkommen. Internationalismus bezeichnet im spezifischen Sinne sprachliche Einheiten, die ausdrucksseitig und inhaltsseitig (gegebenfalls nur strukturell und inhaltsseitig) übereinstimmend oder ähnlich in zahlreichen Sprachen verschiedener Erdteile vorkommen (1995a:272). 24

25 Da jedoch europäische Sprachen auch außereuropäisch verbreitet sind, schlägt Bergmann im weiteren die folgende Definition von Europäismen vor, die im Unterschied zur rein geographischen die historische und kulturelle Komponente deutlich macht: Europäismen sind demnach in europäischen beziehungsweise aus Europa stammenden Sprachen etwa im Englischen, Französischen und Deutschen verbreitete sprachliche Einheiten, die überwiegend aus lateinischen und griechischen Bestandteilen bestehen und insofern ausdrucksseitig und inhaltsseitig Übereinstimmung oder Ähnlichkeit besitzen oder aber überwiegend nach lateinischen und griechischen Mustern gebildet sind und insofern nur strukturell und inhaltsseitig Übereinstimmung oder Ähnlichkeit besitzen (1995b:27). Die als Europäismen bezeichneten Wörter sind in der gesamten Forschungsliteratur zum überwiegenden Teil griechischer und lateinischer Herkunft. Hier müssen aber auch Wörter berücksichtigt werden, die nicht nur im Altgriechischen oder Klassischen Latein existierten, sondern auch Wörter, die erst im Mittel- oder Neulatein entstanden oder in den modernen Sprachen aus lateinischen oder griechischen Elementen neu gebildet werden. Außerdem müssen auch Wörter aus anderen lingua franca - Sprachen berücksichtigt werden, wie das Mittelniederdeutsche in der Hansezeit, das Französische als Sprache des europäischen Hofes, das Russische in der Sowjetzeit, das Angloamerikanische heute usw. Im Hinblick auf die Zahl und die Verwandschaft der Sprachen scheint beim Begriff Europäismus eine Offenheit zu bleiben. In wie vielen Sprachen mindestens muss ein Lexem vorkommen, damit es als Internationalismus bzw. Europäismus anerkannt werden kann? Ein Vorkommen in zwei Sprachen mag bereits ausreichen, andererseits ist auch klar, dass eine weite Verbreitung in vielen europäischen Sprachen den Europäismus sozusagen europäischer macht (Bergmann, 1995a:269). Alan Kirkness nennt Europäismen Wörter, die in fünf, sechs oder sieben Sprachen vorkommen (vgl. Kirkness, 2001:212). Für einige Linguisten reicht das Vorkommen in drei Sprachen, für andere dagegen genügt das Vorkommen in sieben oder mehreren Sprachen. Die in den einzelnen europäischen Sprachfamilien auftretenden Übereinstimmungen sollte man nicht als Europäismen werten, weil sie in den meisten Fällen zum Erbwortschatz und nicht zum Lehnwortschatz dieser Sprachen gehören. Um als Europäismen gelten zu können, müssen meines Erachtens die Wörter folgende Bedingungen erfüllen: 1) Bedingung der Mindestzahl der Vergleichssprachen: ein Zeichen muss mindestens in zwei europäischen Vergleichssprachen inhaltlich und formal äquivalente Vertreter haben, wobei eine Vergleichssprache aus einer anderen Sprachgruppe/Sprachfamilie sein sollte, um zu zeigen, dass die inhaltliche und formale Gleichheit/Ähnlichkeit nicht immer auf die genetische Verwandtschaft bzw. auf die gemeinsame Zukunft zurückzuführen ist. 2) Bedingung der formalen Übereinstimmung: zumindest ein Kernmorphem des Repräsentanten eines Eurolexems muss eine gleiche/annähernd gleiche Gestalt aufweisen. Bergmann nennt das ähnliche Aussehen der Europäismen bzw. die 25

26 sichtbare Übereinstimmung der geschriebenen Europäismen (vgl. Bergmann 2008). 3) Bedingung der inhaltlichen Übereinstimmung: ein Ausdruck muss mit mindestens einer gemeinsamen Bedeutungsvariante (1 Semem) in den verschiedenen Vergleichssprachen repräsentiert sein. Die Übereinstimmung der europäischen Sprachen geht viel weiter als ausdruckseitige Ähnlichkeit und tritt auch rein inhaltsseitig auf. Als Beispiel dafür gelten hier Lehnübersetzungen und syntaktische Bildungen. Sie werden zu den sog. semantischen Entlehnungen gezählt, deren Lehnformung formal abhängig ist (vgl. Bussmann, 2002). 4) Bedingung des grammatischen Status: Die zur Bildung eines Europäismus in Frage kommenden Wörter müssen auch in grammatischer Hinsicht einen vergleichbaren Status aufweisen. Nach all studierten Arbeiten im Bereich Europäismenforschung wird hier folgende Definition vorgeschlagen: Europäismen sind in europäischen Sprachen verbreitete sprachliche Einheiten, die aus verschiedenen lingua franca-sprachen stammen, mindestens in zwei nicht genetisch verwandten Sprachen vorkommen, inhaltliche und oder formale Übereinstimmung bzw. Ähnlichkeit besitzen und in grammatischer Sicht einen vergleichbaren Status aufweisen. 2. Typen von Europäismen Das aus Zeitungstexten gewonnene Korpus orientiert sich an der Zielsetzung Typen der Europäismen in deutschen, englischen, litauischen, russischen und ukrainischen Zeitungstexten und somit in ihren gemeinsprachlichen Wortschätzen zu ermitteln. Insgesamt wurden 5 Tageszeitungen untersucht: Lietuvos rytas, Комсомольская правда, Молодь України, Frankfuter Allgemeine Zeitung und The Times. Es wurden ca Europäismen (einschließlich Mehrfachnennungen) ermittelt. Die den untersuchten Tageszeitungen entnommenen Europäismen wurden nach Substitutions- bzw. Integrationstypen (zur Terminologie vgl. Munske, Fink, H. 1997, Viereck W., 1980, Carstensen, B. 1991) in folgende Typen von Europäismen differenziert: 1) Nullsubstitutionen (NS) oder Lingua franca Europäismen (LFE), zur Bezeichnung der Wörter, die in ihrer fremdsprachlichen Variante unverändert in die untersuchten Sprachen übernommen werden. Es handelt sich hier um eine sehr hohe Übereinstimmung sowohl auf phonetischer als auch auf graphischer Ebene: Champions League im Ukrainischen, bureaucrat im Englischen, Homepage im Deutschen, all inclusive im Russischen oder Au-pair im Litauischen. In der Sprachwissenschaft werden sie meistens als Fremdwörter bezeichnet, d.h. Wörter, die noch nicht oder nicht ganz integriert sind, also noch Merkmale der Fremdheit zeigen. 2) Lehnübernahmen (LÜ) oder morphologisch integrierte Europäismen (MIE). Bei dieser Gruppe geht es um fremdsprachliche Übernahmen, die im wesentlichen an die untersuchten Sprachen morphologisch (auch graphemisch und grapho-phonemisch) angepasst worden sind: (engl.) discrimination, homosexuality, (dt.) schockieren, Produk- 26

27 tion, (lit.) emigrantas, telekompanija; (russ.) телеканал, рисковать, (ukr.) iнiцiатива, спланувати usw. Im Grunde genommen sind das Lehnwörter, d.h. Wörter, die zwar aus fremden Sprachen stammen, die aber alle Merkmale der Fremdheit verloren haben; sie sind so sehr integriert, dass niemand ihnen ihren fremden Ursprung mehr ansieht. 3) Da die Klassifikation in LFE (Fremdwörter) und MIE (Lehnwörter) nicht differenziert genug ist, wird der dritte Substitutionstyp vorgeschlagen, u.z. Pseudonullsubstitutionen (PNS) oder originale Europäismen (OE). Man könnte sich mit solchen Europäismen ohne jegliche Kenntnisse einer anderen europäischen Sprache verständigen: (lit.) metro, kazino, tango; (russ.) шоу, кафэ, сауна, (ukr.) професор, балет, бiзнес, (engl.) portrait, actor, minimum, (dt.) Likör, Massage, Laser. Die festgestellten OE-en lassen sich der Integration nach in zwei grobe Typen einteilen: a) graphemische Integration/Anpassung: hier geschieht die Integration ausschließlich auf der graphemischen Ebene. Es handelt sich dabei um eine Substitution der in den entsprechenden Wörtern vorkommenden Fremdgrapheme mit dem Ziel, die quellsprachige Aussprache weitgehend zu erhalten. Diese wird durch eine indigene Schreibung gestützt, wobei dann die graphematische Identität von Fremdwort und quellsprachigem Muster aufgegeben bzw. eingeschränkt wird: (fr.) bureau (dt.) Büro, (lat.) camera (russ.) камера, (engl.) killer - (ukr.) кiлер. b) grapho-phonemische Integration/Anpassung, obwohl es graphisch um NS-en geht: bei dieser Form der Integration, die auch Leseaussprache genannt wird, ist der umgekehrte Weg zu beobachten. Ausgehend von der Graphie findet hier eine phonemische Integration statt, indem die quellsprachige Schreibung weitgehend erhalten, aber die Zeichenfolge nach dem Muster indigener Graphem-Phonem-Beziehungen ausgesprochen wird. Geopfert wird hier zugunsten einer originalen Schreibung die quellsprachige Aussprache: (fr.) abonnement oder (engl.) Radio im Deutschen. Dazu werden auch Übernahmen im Russischen, Ukrainischen oder Litauischen aus den westeuropäischen Sprachen gezählt. Obwohl hier die originale Schreibung (Latein-Kyrillica) nicht erhalten werden kann, handelt es sich hier doch um die Leseaussprache, die nur mit indigener Schreibung widergegeben wird. Bei diesem Typ geht es also um weitgehende graphemische Übereinstimmung mit erheblichen Abweichungen in der phonetischen Realisierung: (engl.) film (russ.) фильм, (engl.) hotel (ukr.) готель. All diesen Formen ist es gemeinsam, dass sie entweder durch Änderung der Schreibung oder der Aussprache oder aber von beidem zur Herstellung der Graphem-Phonem-Beziehungen führen. Obwohl das Ziel dieser Untersuchung nur Eurolexeme sind, wurden auch syntaktische Bildungen berücksichtigt, die teilweise auch als europäische Idiome gelten könnten und die hier zu Europäismen (europäischen Wortfügungen) gezählt werden: (engl.) credit card, (dt.) Olympische Spiele (lit.) alkoholiniai gėrimai, (russ.) генеральный директор, (ukr.) вiльна пресa usw. Um den Rahmen dieses Artikels nicht zu sprengen, werden hier nur kurz die wichtigsten typologischen Ergebnisse präsentiert. Es muss auch betont werden, dass für diese Untersuchung keine allgemeine statistische Repräsentativität beansprucht wird, denn 27

28 die Auswertungsergebnisse sollen vornehmlich der Illustration dienen und eventuell die weiteren Untersuchungen auf diesem interessanten Gebiet anregen. Typen von Europäismen Englisch Deutsch Litauisch Russisch Ukrainisch LÜ (MIE) 73,00% 53,00% 90,4% 59,8% 68,20% PNS (OE) 12,7% 10,3% 5,7% 39,00% 31,00% NS (LFE) 8,8% 8,5% 0,9% 0,75% 0,3% SB 5,5% 1,2% 3,00% 0,3% 0,5% Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Lehnübernahmen (LÜ) oder morphologisch integrierte Europäismen (MIE) die größte Gruppe in allen untersuchten Sprachen bilden. Viele Europäismen sind als fertige Wörter übernommen, so zum Beispiel Wörter wie Demokratie und Toleranz. Von ihnen ausgehend entfalten sich ganze Wortfamilien, d.h. von den meisten fremdsprachlichen Wörtern (Stämmen, Wurzeln) können nach den Regeln des Wortbildungssystems jeder europäischen Sprache verschiedene Wortarten gebildet werden. In allen untersuchten Sprachen ist die Wortbildungssynonymie der fremdsprachlichen Morpheme (Lexeme) mit den einheimischen Affixen oder umgekehrt der fremdsprachlichen Affixen mit den einheimischen Lexemen typisch: (russ.) автомобиль-автомобильный, риск-рисковать; (ukr.) органiзацiя органiзований, емiграцiя емiгрувати; (lit.) abonentas abonentinis abonuoti; (dt.) Garantie garantieren, Fax faxen; Charme charmant; (engl.) discrimination discriminate, nation national usw. oder (russ.) суперзвезда, засекреченный, пофантазировать, (ukr.) мiкрорайонi, електропоїзд, (lit.)įregistruoti, iššifruoti, (dt.) humorvoll, kontaktfreudig, (engl.) dishonest, frustrate usw. Es wurden vor allem antike Muster der Wortbildung belegt. Man vergleiche Reihen entsprechender Bildungen wie (dt.) Teleskopie, Endoskopie, Mikroskopie, Demoskopie oder die zu -phob gehörigen Substantive wie Nekrophobie, Klaustrophobie. Diese Wortbildung ist ebenfalls europäisch, denn sie erfolgt in den europäischen Sprachen völlig parallel und nach systematischen Entsprechungsregeln. Es wurden natürlich auch europäische Suffixe belegt, wie z.b. - ist, -ent, -ant: (engl.) vocalist, (dt.) Vokalist, (ukr.) вокалiст oder (dt.) Konsultant, (russ.) консультант und europäische Präfixe festgestellt, die ja auch international verbreitet sind, wie z.b mikro-, -tele, anti-, super-, elektro-, foto-, agro-, bio-, radio-, euro-, fizio- usw. Alle erwähnten Elemente sind feste Bestandteile im europäischen Wortbildungssystem. Sie sind in Wortbildung und Gebrauch in jeder Hinsicht ein bedeutender, lebendiger Teil des Wortschatzes jeder europäischer Sprache. Die Pseudonullsubstitutionen (PNS) oder originale Europäismen (OE) spielen laut meiner Untersuchung im Englischen, Deutschen und Litauischen eine untergeordnete Rolle: (engl.) analysis, tsunami, chauffeur, cliche, impresario, repertoire, virus, optimum; (dt.) Klub, Taille, Vernissage, Massage, Abonnement, Spektrum, Likör, Etikette; (lit.) tango, antena, arena, kazino interviu, drama, koma, proza. Im Russischen und Ukrainischen dagegen ist ihr Anteil relativ groß: (russ.) курорт, шок, cауна, aрия, спонсор, имидж, 28

29 интернет-сайт, шоумен, аквапарк; (ukr.) де-факто, прем`єр-мiнiстр, уїк-енд, ноухау, котедж, кiлер, апартамент, рейтинг, менеджмент. Der Blick auf den dritten Substitutionstyp könnte diese Ergebnisse erklären. Im Vergleich zum Russischen (0,75%), Ukrainischen (0,3%) oder Litauischen (0,95%) ist der Anteil der Nullsubstitutionen im Englischen und Deutschen relativ groß: (dt.) Saison, Restaurant, Rendezvous, Renaissance, Tempo, Villa, minus, extra; (engl.) concern, budget, prince, radio, routine, souvenir (dazu wurden auch einheimische Wörter Anglizismen und/oder im Englischen aus lat./gr. Elementen entstandene Wörter gezählt: match, computer, sport, monitor, airport usw.). Im Deutschen (8,5%) handelt es sich meistens um Anglizismen (Band, Charts, Hit, Show, Come back, Single, Nomepage, online, Team, Casting, Song), die sich im Russischen und Ukrainischen graphisch (Kyrillica) integrieren und als PNS existieren. D.h. die neusten Erscheinungen werden ins Deutsche oder Englische als NS übernommen und in den Sprachen mit nicht lateinischem Schriftsystem, wie die Kyrillica, werden sie graphemisch integriert. Das erklärt den größeren Anteil von NS im Deutschen und Englischen und den relativ größeren Anteil von PNS im Russischen und Ukrainischen. Im Englischen (8,8%) geht es größtenteils um die sog. einheimischen NS-en bzw. Nationalismen. D.h. die meisten Neubildungen, die aus lateinischen und/oder griechischen Elementen gebildet werden, werden in der heutigen Lingua-Franca dem Englischen - geboren und deswegen nicht zu LÜ, sondern zu NS gezählt. Im Vergleich zu allen anderen untersuchten Sprachen ist der Anteil von SB-en (integrierten syntaktischen Bildungen) im Litauischen sehr groß - etwa 3,0%. Das liegt vor allem daran, dass viele Übernahmen, besonders Komposita, im Litauischen durch Genetiv - Konstruktionen wiedergegeben werden: interneto puslapis, kabelinė televizija, realybės šou. Bei SB geht es im Prinzip um Lehnübersetzungen, bei denen die sog. inhaltliche und nicht ausdrucksseitige Übereinstimmung im Vordergrund steht. Schlussfolgerungen Hier wurde versucht, den Terminus Internationalismus zu erklären und ihn vom Europäismus abzugrenzen. Als Europäismen werden im vorliegenden Beitrag in Anlehnung an Bergmann (1995a, 2008) die in europäischen Sprachen verbreiteten sprachlichen Einheiten verstanden, die aus verschiedenen lingua franca Sprachen stammen, mindestens in zwei nicht genetisch verwandten Sprachen vorkommen, inhaltliche und oder formale Übereinstimmung bzw. Ähnlichkeit besitzen und in grammatischer Sicht einen vergleichbaren Status aufweisen. Anhand einer empirischen Untersuchung von Zeitungstexten wurden auch Typen von Europäismen präsentiert: Lingua-franca Europäismen, originale- und morphologisch integrierte Europäismen. Der lexikalische Vergleich erfolgte in 5 Sprachen. Laut Ergebnissen werden die neusten Erscheinungen ins Deutsche oder Englische als NS übernommen und ins Russische und Ukrainische als Sprachen mit nicht lateinischem Schriftsystem, der Kyrillica, werden sie graphemisch integriert. Das erklärt den größeren 29

30 belegten Anteil von LFE in den beiden westeuropäischen Sprachen und den von OE im Russischen und Ukrainischen. Im Litauischen, als einer fremdwortscheuen Sprache, verlieren fast alle belegten Beispiele Merkmale ihrer Fremdheit; sie werden sofort graphisch, phonetisch und morphologisch an das Litauische angepasst. Deswegen wurden hier nur wenige LFE und OE festgestellt. MIE bilden die größte Gruppe in jeder untersuchten Sprache, weil sich fremdsprachliche Übernahmen meistens schnell integrieren und zu den ganzen Wortfamilien entfalten. Die belegten Beispiele haben auch gezeigt, dass die Wortbildung mit europäischen Affixen in den europäischen Sprachen völlig parallel erfolgt. Europäismen und europäische Elemente sind in Wortbildung und Gebrauch in jeder Hinsicht ein bedeutender, lebendiger Teil des Wortschatzes jeder untersuchten Sprache. Das macht deutlich, wie vernetzt europäische Sprachen miteinander sind und wie wichtig Europäismen für ihre lexikalische Weiterentwicklung sind. 30 Quellenverzeichnis Zeitungen: Молодь України (2002, 102), The Times (2005, 68353), Lietuvos rytas (2002, 249), Frankfuter Allgemeine Zeitung (2004, 1), Комсомольская правда (2002, 168) Literaturverzeichnis 1. Bergmann, R. (1995a). Europäismus und Internationalismus. Zur lexikologischen Terminologie. In: Sprachwissenschaft 20, Bergmann, R. (1995b). Der Begriff Europäismus in der sprachwissenschaftlichen Diskussion. In: Bergmann, R./H.W. Eroms/T.Vennemann Sprachwissenschaft 20. Heidelberg 3. Bergmann, R. (2008c): Das doppelte Deutsch.Europäischer und deutscher Wortschatz. In: Godehard R.t (Hrsg.): Schriften der Otto-Friedrich-Universität Bamberg, Band 1. University of Bamberg Press, Bussmann, H. (Hg.) (2002): Lexikon der Sprachwissenschaft. Stuttgart: Alfred Kröner Verlag. 5. Buzássyová, K. (1993). Die Koexistenz einheimischer und internationaler lexikalischer Einheiten als Abbild der kulturellen und politischen Strömungen. In: Panzer, B. (Hrsg.): Aufbau, Entwicklung und Struktur des Wortschatzes in den europäischen Sprachen. Heidelberger Publikationen zur Slavistik. Linguistische Reihe, Band Frohne, G. (1991). Lexikalische Internationalismen und ihre Rolle im Fremdsprachenunterricht. In: Raasch, Albert/Herold, Dieter/Kiupel, Claere (Hrsg.): Fremdsprachendidaktik in der ehemaligen DDR: Die Öffnung. Saarbrücken, Kirkness, A. (2001). Europäismen/Internationalismen im heutigen deutschen Wortschatz. Eine lexikographische Pilotstudie. In: Stickel, G.: Neues und Fremdes im deutschen Wortschatz. Walter de Gruyter/Berlin/New York. Institut für deutsche Sprache Jahrbuch 2000, Özen, Ü. 1999: Internationalismen. Siegen, Universität 9. Reichmann, O. (1993): Europäismen im Wortschatz von Einzelsprachen. In: Panzer,

31 B. (Hrsg.): Aufbau, Entwicklung und Struktur des Wortschatzes in den europäischen Sprachen. Beiträge zum lexikologischen Symposion in Heidelberg vom 7. bis 10. Oktober Frankfurt a. M., Berlin, Bern u. a. (Peter Lang) 1993 ( = Heidelberger Publikationen zur Slavistik. A. Linguistische Reihe. 6), S Santrauka Kas yra europeizmas? Lingvistiniai apibrėžimo aspektai Diana Babušytė Straipsnyje nagrinėjamas europeizmo terminas dabartinėje lingvistikoje ir euroleksemų vartojimas spaudoje. Šio tyrimo tikslas yra parodyti europeizmų tipus ir jų integracijos į lietuvių, rusų, ukrainiečių, vokiečių ir anglų kalbas pavyzdžius. Istoriniai, kultūriniai ir socialiniai faktoriai straipsnyje nenagrinėjami. Europeizmo terminas pateikiamas remiantis lingvistiniais tyrimais. Prieš europeizmų integracijos analizę trumpai apžvelgiami terminologiniai ir metodologiniai europeizmų tyrimo pagrindai. Ši mokslinių tyrimų sritis yra pakankamai jauna, o tai sąlygoja temos aktualumą. 31

32 32 Linguistic Realization of Power Relations in Decontextualized Situations Abstract Janina Buitkienė Vilnius Pedagogical University, 39 Studentų St., LT-08106, Vilnius, People use language to form and maintain their social relationships, and a key factor in constructive communication is politeness. Thus the purpose of the research was to look for and identify language elements that function as politeness strategies as well as focus on the way such politeness elements help interpret existing power relations between discourse participants. The research concentrated on thirteen beginnings of texts with the aim 1) to show the interrelationship between politeness strategies and power relations and 2) to prove that the employment of politeness strategies can help interpret power relations between discourse participants in a decontextualized situation. The above mentioned aims were achieved by applying, in addition to content analysis, the method of linguistic research that has become known as critical discourse analysis. The research demonstrated that it is possible to identify and interpret power relations between discourse participants by analyzing politeness elements employed in their conversations in decontextualized situations as well as to identify their roles and status. Linguistic means that helped to come to such a conclusion are, among others, the following ones: vocatives, hedges, boosters, directive speech acts and turn taking. Key words: power relations, politeness strategies, positive/negative face, directive speech acts, hedging, turn taking. INTRODUCTION As the joke goes, to a hostess who had sent an invitation stating that on a certain day she would be at home, G. B. Shaw succinctly replied: So will G. Bernard Shaw. The question arises, then, why do people in their everyday lives disregard the common-sense maxim say what you mean and mean what you say? People use language to form and maintain their social relationships. A key factor in constructive communication is politeness. People are polite to each other because they recognize this need in others and know that by being polite they are more likely to be successful in getting things done. Thus the purpose of this research is to look for and identify language elements that function as politeness strategies as well as focus on the way such politeness elements help interpret existing power relations between

33 discourse participants. Language can hardly be devoid of power because discourse is a social practice, and people communicate in ways determined socially (Fairclough 1991, 1997; Wodak 1996). Consequently, power relations are clearly observable in social life, and language, being an inalienable part of our social life, possesses manifold ways to exhibit power relations: it indexes power, expresses power etc. Power relations, however, have a tendency to be hidden in modern societies both at the institutional level (doctorpatient communication, for example) and in face-to-face discourse for many reasons, e.g. for manipulative reasons or certain restraints on formality. Therefore, interlocutors tend to be polite and to resort to certain politeness strategies to preserve the addressee s face, to recognize differences of power, degrees of social distance etc. Being polite means respect towards the person you are talking to and avoid offending him/her. The linguistic means by which politeness is expressed in language are varied, and some of them will be discussed later. 1. MATERIAL AND METHODS The analysis was based on Short s claim that Most ordinary spoken language behaviour takes place in a firmly grounded situational context, where relations between speakers are already known. However, writing in general, and literature in particular, is more decontextualized than most speech, and this decontextualized aspect is at its strongest at the beginning of texts, when the writer has had no chance to provide us with details of textual world we are about to step into (Short 1966: 200). To verify this claim, the research concentrated on thirteen beginnings of texts with the aim to 1) to show the interrelationship between politeness strategies and power relations and 2) to prove that the employment of politeness strategies can help interpret power relations between discourse participants in a decontextualized situation. The mentioned objectives were achieved by applying, in addition to content analysis, the method of linguistic research that has become known as critical discourse analysis which is essentially concerned with discourse as a social phenomenon, social interaction involving displays of power. 2. THEORETICAL PREREQUISITES OF THE STUDY First of all, politeness is closely connected with speech act theory. Pertinent to the study of politeness is the fact of dividing speech acts into direct and indirect. It is generally acknowledged that politeness is more associated with indirectness. Thus indirect speech acts are one of many forms of politeness frequently used in situations which lack familiarity, exhibit the formality of the context and social distance (differences of status, role, age, class, education etc). Direct speech acts (or directives), on the other hand, function in a twofold way: in the first place, they may indicate a socially superior discourse partner (i.e. the one having more power); secondly, they are considered appropriate among social equals (positive face). 33

34 Another discourse framework which is capable of revealing the nature of social relationships between individuals was developed by Brown and Levinson (2000) who laid foundations for the principles of politeness. Central to the notion of politeness phenomenon is the concept of face. Face is seen as a kind of public self-image which members of a society claim for themselves. It consists of two related aspects: positive and negative face. Negative face refers to any person s need to be independent; positive face, on the other hand, refers to any person s need to be accepted, even liked, by others, to be treated as a member of the same group, i.e. the need to be connected. However, speakers often perform acts which threaten the addressee s face. These are called face-threatening acts (FTA). According to the above mentioned scholars, there are various ways of performing FTAs which depend upon the social (power) relationship between interlocutors: 1) baldly, without redress (impolite; performing such an act the speaker shows little concern for the hearer face; very often it might mean that the speaker holds relatively high power (e.g. Open the window!); 2) on record with redressive action (e.g. Would you mind opening the window, I wonder if you could open the window etc); 3) off record (indirect strategy; the speaker uses the form of a declarative sentence, thus appearing to be non-coercive and avoiding the responsibility of damaging the addressee s face. As noted by many scholars, linguistic realization of off-record strategies include metaphor, irony, rhetorical questions, understatements, all kind of indirect hints (e.g. It s a bit stuffy in here. an indirect request to open the window). 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The research demonstrated that it is possible to identify and interpret power relations between discourse participants by analyzing politeness elements employed in their conversation in decontextualized situations (the beginnings of dialogues) as well as to identify their social roles and status. Linguistic elements that help to come to such conclusions are, among others, the following ones. Vocatives. The use of vocatives is important to stress status differences. Socially superior participants address socially subordinate participants by terms of address not marked for respect, pet names and endearments, while socially subordinate participants tend to use titles and forms of address marked for respect. In addition, some languages possess different means of expressing distal relations or distal deixis. Such languages as Lithuanian, Russian, German etc widely exploit personal pronouns as indicators of distal deixis. Still others, which are devoid of such a possibility, employ other means to express power relations. The very opening lines of O. Wilde s play The Importance of Being Earnest demonstrate the use of address forms/vocatives to indicate power relations: Algernon addresses his manservant by name, while the latter calls his master sir: Algernon: Did you hear what I was playing, Lane? Lane: I didn t think it polite to listen, sir. (O. Wilde The Importance of Being Earnest ) 34

35 However, on the other thought, it becomes arguable whether the power relations between the master and the servant really exist in real life relationship; despite the honorific address sir, the reader can feel mockery in the servant s voice and tone. It is reinforced in their further dialogue: Algernon: Oh!... by the way, Lane, I see from your book that on Thursday night < > eight bottles of champagne are entered as being consumed. Lane: Yes, sir; eight bottles and a pint. Algernon: Why is it that at a bachelor s establishment the servants invariably drink the champagne? Though from the language point of view the manservant observes status differences between himself and his master, actually the reader infers that the former feels himself on the same footing as his master. Moreover, there is self-assuredness in his response, a feeling that he is right, while in Algernon s question we feel certain hesitation and embarrassment. Hedging is considered to be one of the most important politeness strategies, and hedges are described as a means of toning-down utterances and statements in order to reduce the riskiness of what one says, to mitigate what may otherwise seem too forceful, to express politeness or respect to strangers and superiors. Scholars (Hyland 1996; Salager-Meyer 1997 and others), working in this field, completely agree upon the crucial functions of hedges, i.e. 1) to reduce the risk of opposition and to minimize the threat-to-face; 2) to be more precise in reporting results; 3) to serve as positive and negative politeness strategies; 4) to help to conform to an established writing style. However, their inventory is far from clear. Following Markkanen & Schröder (2006: 4), it could be stated that no clear-cut lists of hedging expressions are possible because no linguistic items are inherently hedgy but can acquire this quality depending on the communicative context or the co-text. Roughly speaking, linguists attribute the quality of hedging to such word-groups and expressions as modals (e.g. may, might, could etc), modal adjuncts (e.g. possibly, perhaps, probably etc), modal nouns (e.g. possibility), lexical verbs highlighting doubt (e.g. suggest), approximators (e.g. roughly, sort of, quite etc), that clauses (often in combination with modals) (e.g. it could be the case that, it appears that ). Holmes (1999) attributes to hedges vocal hesitations (um, er) and such linguistic forms as you know, I think, sort of which she labels as pragmatic particles. In her opinion, tag questions also function as hedges. Hoye analysed modals and their adverb satellites (they are called modal-adverb expressions) such as could kindly, will kindly, could possibly on three levels syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. At a pragmatic level, the scholar claims, their role of protecting face in negative politeness strategies in particular, is crucial (Hoye 1997: 133). Hedges are considered to be negative politeness strategies. However, there is no oneto-one relationship between a linguistic form and its realization; one form may serve many functions, and particular functions are expressed by a variety of forms. Functioning of the above mentioned linguistic items as hedges or boosters, as a means of expressing positive or negative politeness, depends heavily upon the context. 35

36 Ursula, said Gudrun, don t you really want to get married? < > I don t know, she replied. It depends how you mean. Gudrun was slightly taken aback. She watched her sister for some moments. Well, she said, ironically, it usually means one thing! But don t you think, anyhow, you d be - she darkened slightly - in a better position than you are in now. A shadow came over Ursula s face. I might, she said. But I m not sure. (D. H. Lawrence Women in Love ) The opening chapter of the novel starts with the conversation of two sisters about getting married. Their attitude towards marriage is different, and this stems out from their characters, experience, life attitudes etc. Gudrun at this point is more self-confident and domineering. She directs and controls the flow of their conversation. Next to other linguistic devices to emphasize her self-assuredness, her turns contain boosters rather than hedges (e.g. really, usually). Ursula, on the other hand, is unsure about her future life prospects; she seems to be under her sister s influence; consequently, her turns are shorter and contain many hedges (e.g. might, not sure, don t know). In the discussion of power relations and politeness, a mention should be made of turn-taking. Turn-taking in general is the major concern of the Conversation Analysis (CA) approach to spoken discourse, which investigates the principles of the organization of taking turns. Later, CA was supplemented by ethnomethodological approach which implies investigation of concrete actions of people going about their everyday business. Thus spoken discourse, or turn-taking, became viewed as a means to express gender, ethnical, age etc differences, to establish dominance (power) and self-identity. In any case, it is evident that turn-taking can be considered as one of mitigating or face threatening devices in the analysis of power relation and consideration of speaker s/hearer s face wants. Such qualities of turn-taking as defining the content of conversation and its direction, the number of moves and their length, the use (or not use) of mitigation in the moves all these are strategies for expressing power relations and politeness. For example: COUNCEL: Mr Chamberlain. You are charged that on the night of September 30 th, 1938, you did indecently expose yourself at the windows of your home, No10 Downing Street, clad only in a scrap of paper and shouting Peace With Honour, Peace Wit Honour. How say you, guilty or not guilty? CHAMBERLAIN: I m not sure. JUDGE: Mr Chamberlain. You are either guilty or not guilty. That is something you must decide for yourself. The Court cannot decide it for you. CHAMBERLAIN: I thought that was what courts are for. JUDGE: Don t be impertinent or I shall have you smacked in the back of your legs. I shall now proceed to the sentences. COUNCEL: But the evidence, m lud. JUDGE: The prisoner has come here for sentence. Let us hear that out of the way before we hear the evidence. First things first. COUNCEL: It s usual to have the evidence first, m lud. 36

37 JUDGE: Don t try to tie me up in legal mumbo jumbo. I know the trial procedure backwards. (A. Bennet Forty years On ) This example can be regarded as an institutional discourse because the action takes place in court. Out of three discourse participants, Judge is the most socially powerful discourse participant because he/she has legitimate power over the case, in the first place. Secondly, his power is reinforced linguistically. He uses directive speech acts bold on record (Don t be impertinent and Don t try to tie me up) both to Chamberlain and Counsel, he is addressed as m lud, a form of courtesy and, what is important in this context, takes the longest turns and directs the flow of conversation. Directive speech acts. They can be used bold on record in two ways. Firstly, the socially superior discourse participant has enough power to give orders to the socially subordinate discourse participants. The other way is socially equal participants talk to each other without threatening anybody s face because sometimes using a direct command as a bald on record expression is considered appropriate among social equals. The following example demonstrates the first case: The bell rang furiously and, when Miss Parker went to the tube, a furious voice called out in a piercing North of Ireland accent: - Send Farrington here! Miss Parker returned to her machine, saying to a man who was writing at a desk: - Mr Alleyne wants you upstairs. The man muttered Blast him! under his breath and pushed back his chair to stand up. (J. Joyce Counterparts ) There are three discourse participants in the office situation: Miss Parker, Farrington, and Mr Alleyne. It can be seen that Mr Alleyne is a socially superior participant, and Miss Parker and Farrington are socially inferior ones. The division of power is seen when Mr Alleyne performs a face threatening act towards Miss Parker by using a directive speech act to order her around bald on record. He uses imperative without bothering to modify his request by a negative politeness strategy, could you please or would you mind, for example. Then, Mr. Alleyne uses only the surname of the subordinate to address him, which is a form not marked for respect as seen by Short (1996: 206), and this signals a certain amount of social distance and disrespect to the subordinate person; consequently, Mr Alleyne considers himself to be of a higher social status than his two subordinates. On the other hand, Miss Parker uses the formula title+last name to mark her lower social status when referring to her employer. CONCLUSIONS The investigation of politeness elements at the beginnings of texts proved that there exists interrelationship between politeness strategies and power relations, and that politeness strategies serve as a reliable linguistic means to interpret power relations between discourse participants. It also confirmed that it is possible, from decontextualized openings, to determine the relationships between discourse participants as well as to 37

38 identify their social roles and status. The predominant linguistic means to achieve this, as research disclosed, are address forms (vocatives), hedges, turn taking, and directive speech acts. References 1. Brown, P., Levinson S. C Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. In: The Discourse Reader ed. by A. Jaworsky and N. Coupland. London & New York: Routledge. 2. Fairclough, N Language and Power. London & New York: Longman. 3. Fairclough, N Critical Discourse Analysis. London & New York: Longman. 4. Holmes, J Women, Men and Politeness. Longman Group UK Limited. 5. Hoye, L Adverbs and Modality in English. - London & New York: Longman. 6. Hyland, K Writing Without Conviction? Hedging in Science Research Articles. In: Applied Linguistics, Vol 17, No 4, p Markkanen R. & Schröder, H. Hedging: A Challenge for Pragmatics and Discourse Analysis markkane.html accessed Salager-Meyer, F I Think That Perhaps You Should: A Study of Hedges in Written Scientific discourse. In: Functional Approaches to Written Texts: Classroom Applications. Washington: United States Information Agency. 9. Short, M Exploring the Language of Poems, Plays and Prose. Longman/ Pearson. 10. Wodak, R Disorders of Discourse. London & New York: Longman. Santrauka Valios raiškos lingvistinė realizacija situacijose be konteksto Janina Buitkienė Straipsnyje aptariama lingvistinės diskurso dalyvių valios raiškos ir mandagumo principo koreliacija situacijose be konteksto, t.y. grožinio teksto pradžioje. Analizė leidžia daryti išvadą, kad konkretūs kalbiniai elementai šiose situacijose padeda nustatyti pokalbio dalyvių hierarchinius santykius. Diskurso dalyviai savo valiai išreikšti vartoja tokias lingvistinės raiškos priemones kaip kreipinius, sąšvelnius, tiesioginius (direktyvinius) šnekos aktus. Diskurso dalyvių valią taip pat parodo jų pasakymų ilgis ir turinys, t.y. kaip jie sugeba nukreipti pokalbį jiems palankia kryptimi. 38

39 Aspects of Sophistication in English Speech Marija Liudvika Drazdauskienė Vilnius University, 3 Universiteto St., Vilnius, Lithuania LT-01513, liudvikadam@yahoo.com Abstract The problem of the present paper arises when the teacher considers foreign social culture that he is expected not to ignore when teaching a foreign language and his own social culture that he exposes at school. Culture appears in different guises and in minor details, especially in speech. Appreciating locally published textbooks of English as a foreign language, one cannot help being surprised at the practice to replace English names by the local names, at the lack of modality in texts and exercises and at the essentially local forms of politeness. All these aspects of culture are integrated in genuine British and American English and are particularly obvious in the expression of limited directness in English, sometimes called vague language. The teacher whose speech incorporates these aspects of meaning does not only pay tribute to the foreign and his native culture but is a living model to the learner. Some ways of learning, especially through drama, can be conducive to the model set by the teacher. However, foreign teachers of English as a foreign language have to bear in mind the intellectual discipline innate to the native speakers of English. He has to learn therefore to harmonise politeness and discipline in language whatever the myths of democracy or rights of the child. The teacher may be more successful with his model of culture now that enquiry-based learning has been put on the agenda. Key words: aspects of culture in speech, modality, limited directness, vague language, language through drama, politeness, intellectual discipline, enquiry-based learning. The problem to be discussed in the present paper is the question how permanent the interpersonal component of meaning is in English speech and what challenges it presents to foreigners. It is a question of how direct or tentative English speech customarily is, how strongly culture-specific such expression of interpersonality is, what its like equivalence in Lithuanian is and what this implies to the teacher of English as a foreign language. The descriptive part of the paper has been based on a continuous study of spoken English in international communication and in relevantly selected complete works of fiction (the novels of Margaret Drabble, E.F.Benson, Richard Gordon, Alan Sillitoe, Barbara Pym, Nancy Mitford, Irwin Shaw, Harold Robbins, John O Hara and other authors, the plays by Peter Shaffer, John Arden, Arnold Wesker and other authors). The prescriptive part of the paper has been based on recent guides (Montague-Smith, 1992; Honours and Tiles, 1992; 39

40 Greenbaum, Whitcut, 1989; Weiner, 1984), books of etiquette (Post, 1992, Redmond, 2003) and on earlier studies of the culture of Anglo-Saxon British and Americans (Campbell, 1903; Post, 1945; Mitford, 1959; Titles, 1955), which give insights into the tradition and expectations in verbal usage. I have also made references to the BBC Learning English materials, communication over the Internet and on thirty years of the experience of classroom teaching. It has been a difference in cultural experience related to the study, sense and usage of English and Lithuanian that has given the identity to the question reflected in the title of the present paper. Sophistication in it does not literally mean knowing the ways of the world and wearing fashionable clothes, although the sense of the sociolinguistic ways of behaviour is implied somewhere, language being the all-inclusive phenomenon of culture. Primarily, though, sophistication here means the availability and use of a variety of expressions which convey interpersonal meaning in any context and refinement in choosing one. Refinement as education and ability to show taste and sense in language and manners relates to the speaker who makes verbal choices but it can also be built in the language as a linguo-literary heritage of a society. In the case of English, interpersonal meaning is a rich component of meaning that is embodied in voluminous records of personal correspondence, public speeches and essays, in imaginative literature and is daily demonstrated in the BBC World Service s programmes and in the published Debates of the House of Commons of the British Parliament (cf.: HANSARD, 1982) available even to the international audience. More specifically, this means the indirectness and tentativeness of the statement, which is an aspect of sophistication balanced with the concrete plainness of the English language, which the educated native speakers and stylists say they seek. In his book A Short Guide to English Style, Alan Warner, for instance, demands to cut the cackle and to call a spade a spade (Warner, 1964, 15ff, 53). Other authors (cf.: Henderson, 1930; Pinckert, 1981) set similar requirements when they advise to strike the adjective or to remove all padding from one s language. But interpersonality also means all aspects of modality (uncertainty, different degrees of assurance, obligation, etc) and vague language, (which is verbal avoidance of the precision of fact and approximation in expression: I must say I suspected it. I sort of knew she will. I kind of had to, etc) (cf.: Carter, McCarthy, 2006, ). Interpersonal meaning means, moreover, correct and appropriate, in content and attitude, response tokens, correct and appropriately elaborated letters, invitations and acknowledgements. This inventory is not complete and it is not artificially invented either. All these aspects of interpersonal meaning are the living English language and they are the daily currency among the educated native speakers. As one can deduce from studies in English style and semantics (cf.: Warner, 1964; Condon, 1966; Turner, 1979) and from incidental remarks in the press and in fiction (Luce; Cartland, 1969 ), what is expected from the speaker of English it is to be clear but not to be blunt. Bluntness as plain and direct speech without an attempt to be polite and hide the unpleasant facts is shocking to the Anglo-Saxon British and Americans as it obviously violates their sense of delicacy. Language is an exceptionally sharp signal to the sensitive people when linguistic niceties and sophistication are lacking where they are 40

41 expected to be. Cf.: our two countries should continually talk to each other bluntly for blunt speaking is something the Russians respect and could do much to increase mutual understanding (Luce, p.3). Merely this evidence available from the time when a majority of people preferred to keep silent rather than voice criticism confirms the social and psychological significance of interpersonal meaning to the educated native speakers of English. Otherwise, English speakers show an obvious tendency to be tentative and polite. Cf.: We don t brag as some countries do, but we do tend to assume we ll be treated as a great power (McDowall, 2003, 138. Cf.: Condon, 1966, 74-96, ). Tentativeness and sophistication in the speech of the British is partly due to the hierarchical structure of the society, which the British themselves acknowledge. Cf.: (The British) love hierarchy and see nothing wrong in the deferential attitude that it breeds. Nowhere is this clearer than in the question of speech. For the way English is spoken gives away not only regional identity but to some extent class status too. It is, for one sociologist, the snobbery which brands the tongue of every British child. (McDowall, 2003, 103). A further question might be what equivalent of this elaborates interpersonal meaning one can trace in Lithuanian. (Aš) manau/sakau/galvoju, kad... (Aš) būčiau linkęs tikėti, kad... or Tai panašu/panėši į... and similar verbal expressions of interpersonality, which would make Lithuanian speech obviously deliberative, have gone partly because even educated Lithuanians do not seem to have the tenderness to require it and partly because of the tempo of life. The universally growing informality with a tendency to bluntness and even rudeness has also wiped much sophistication from the language of the societies whose tradition of literacy and verbal etiquette is not very profound. Of the random means of interpersonality the informal sakau and klausyk may yet remain, but not many more. At good willing, educated Lithuanian speakers can devise some explicit sophistication in their speech, (cf., for instance, overstated requests: Labai prašau padėti. Labai norėčiau dalyvauti. Būk toks (-ia) gera(s), padaryk..., etc.; profuse apologies: Tikrai atsiprašau..., Oi, atsiprašau..., Prašau/Meldžiu, dovanok..., etc.; similarly accented thanks: Labai ačiū, Dėkui, tikrai dėkui, Ačiū jums labai, etc. and even more elaborate utterances, such as Būtų labai malonu. Leisk pasakyti, kad aš tikrai dariau viską, ką galėjau, bet... Visi tau bus dėkingi už tokį žestą, etc. These quotations have not been artificially created but one has to note that they are only potential. Such verbal expression has no general currency and even in situations in which it occurs it impresses one as somewhat unusual today or it takes very special people. Such speech has no regular spread in Lithuanian today. Genuine polite conversation for the pleasure of the persons involved is also gone, while in English such talk is always ready and engaging. The native Anglo-Saxon British and Americans create relaxed and very pleasant atmosphere in small talk to leave the company with the impressions as good as those received at a virtuoso concert. One has clearly two different pictures in so far as polite conversation is concerned: the Anglo-Saxon British and Americans excel in it, create pleasure for the interlocutors, share the pleasure and keep up the livelihood of the language. Nothing of this happens in Lithuanian society, if only among close friends in very limited circles of the educated or, probably, in those of the new influential. 41

42 When I was reading Michael A. Halliday s works (Halliday, 1973, 1976) initially, I took it for granted that his concept of the system of language being a system of meaning composed of three major compartments of meaning ideation, interpersonality and textuality, was based on the data of English and applied only to the system of this language. The compartment of interpersonal meaning seemed ever so peculiarly English, while the ideational and perhaps textual components could be universal. However, when speaking at the 9th World Congress of Applied Linguistics in Thessaloniki in 1990, Halliday emphatically stated that his concept of the structure of the system of language applied to language in general. The truth of this statement could, in fact, be confirmed with reference to his different works. Yet, even so, Halliday s data had been derived basically from English, and this should not be obscured. If his conception really applies to all languages, one can reiterate that the current verbal arsenal of interpersonal meaning differs considerably in English and Lithuanian. One can yet speculate what caused the difference scholastic grammar and its primitive teaching or sociocultural disposition. But whatever the answer, it will not change the resources of interpersonal meaning in the two languges. Here s the rub: how is this lame equivalence to be managed in teaching English as a foreign language because it is likely to show and obstruct the way? It would not probably be a traitor s turn to say that no teacher should neglect so significant compartment of meaning as interpersonality in English. But the problem increases because the genuine expression of interpersonality cannot be taught through instruction and prescription. Most of its expression is either very personal and individual or very delicate. Sometimes they are both. Thus, for instance, one can teach the use of the standard forms of address and even inform of the pitfalls with confidence. One can describe the meaning and correct application of Mr/Mrs/Miss/Professor/Doctor X, first name usage and the honorific. One can teach how to use certain concrete response tokens, such as Of course, By all means, You don t say so and a few others or greetings, but one cannot instruct how to use and prescribe the usage of such items as single word response tokens (e.g.: Actually, Really, Certainly, etc), tag questions as comments (e.g.: You did, didn t you. You are, aren t you. But it wasn t, was it) and certainly not how to effectuate pauses filled with specific noises, such as Oh, Er, Hm, And, Well, etc. The student has to hear these items used to get an idea of their meaning backed by the impression. Most of the mentioned units can be taught by example first of all because they belong to oral speech. Every learner has to attune himself to the appropriateness of these response tokens, stereotype comments and noises because their meaning is both idiomatic and individual. The phraseology which carries the interpersonal meaning in English and adds cachet to genuine English speech is unfathomable. This causes another difficulty in addition to its fleeting and individual character. Even when one has it thoroughly and recently described and inventorised, as for example in The Cambridge Grammar of English (Carter, McCarthy, 2006) or The Longman Guide to English Usage (Greenbaum, Whitcut, 1989), one faces a cosmos, which is an avalanche of facts few of which can be fixed for a repeated handling in drills and exercises. One can consider, for instance, the use of the sentence initial I suppose, I think, I believe, I presume, etc. (as in: I suppose she could go on 42

43 giving dinner parties all her life. I think she has to...i should think that perhaps it means that he would like you to go) or the use of the same deliberative phrases parenthetically (e.g.: I ll be seeing you some day, I suppose. He s at the Duchess, I think. PPE, I believe?). If instructed that he should use such deliberative phrases, the students tend to accent them and spoil everything. This is a very likely issue with the instruction on the use of I mean, you mean, you know and you see. Foreigners seem to like these deliberative and tentative expressions and take to them in no time while uttering something like You see, I was a student then and we all liked that kind of music, which is quite wrong. The typical place and function for you see is the end of the sentence and the level tone. It is not used initially and is never heavily accented. It seems that only a native speaker or a very proficient teacher can instruct on the use of the deliberative, vague or tentative expressions in English. Only a very well prepared lesson can be successful because a very careful selection is required and only a very accurate description can help. Finally, there is the question of how vulnerable the teacher may be in the classroom of robust and disobedient contemporary teenagers if he devotedly resorted to soft, gentle and deliberative utterances. He might be likely to fall victim to the rude boys sneers and to hear a caricature of his own speech from the impudent pupils. It seems to me that the expression of interpersonal meaning has to be a habit to the teacher and that no teacher can hope to achieve anything in this respect single handed. English teachers would do well if they attended to their own speech while managing the meaning of interpersonality, met frequently on social occasions to practise their English and harmonised their efforts in devising a style of their classroom usage. I mean it would be an achievement if English teachers fostered the culture of their professional community, in which they would spread English of near-native proficiency. This is likely to be a prospective and productive way in learning and teaching genuine English as a foreign language. First, the students would permanently hear virtually genuine English speech and would have examples to follow. They would never therefore be in the situation of a Greek student who was said to have got a drink on having uttered I want to drink with the heavy falling tone, but not the barman s thanks (Prodromou, 1979). The phraseology of interpersonal meaning in English is delicate and sophisticated and one has to attune even one s voice to it. An identifiable community of English teachers who would permanently use cultured language would do more than classroom teaching can offer in so far as the sophisticated expression of meaning in English as a foreign language is concerned. What has been said here about the delicacy and difficulty in the expression of interpersonal meaning in English, leads me to one final conclusion about the integrity of culture and language. Academics who studied the foreigner s English and reactions that it elicits among the native speakers have found that the foreigner s linguistic behaviour can cause irritation, amusement, acceptance and appreciation (Janicki, 1982, 61). The aspiring foreigner might certainly desire to win acceptance and appreciation. This may likely happen if the foreigner avoids the extremes, that is too familiar and rude speech, on the one hand, and too formally stiff speech or, worse, speech of a mixed style, on the other. Neutral is the best manner of expression but it also is very difficult, especially to 43

44 the foreigner who communicates with the native speakers only occasionally. In so far as the expression of interpersonal meaning is concerned, English speech should preferably be deliberative, gentle and polite. With advanced and adult speakers of English as a foreign language, this entails the necessity to assume the native speakers culture, because one can hope for near-native proficiency only if one has the right frame of mind. A few minor examples will prove the point. For some reason, when native speakers address the students, their speech is energetic and sophisticated enough. In one BBC Learning English programme, the teacher addressed the supposed audience with the following utterance while conducting an exercise: I believe he is eating (the students had to name the action and use the right word ). The teacher thus named the action wrongly and expected the right word from the students. But the point I am trying to make is the interpersonal meaning of the utterance. It is there, while with the Lithuanian teachers of English, the utterance in such and similar contexts would be either He is eating or Is he eating? Apart from being ripped off of half of its sense, these utterances are not very correct contextually, especially that the action has to be wrongly named. One can only speculate what has produced the curtailed form of English of most of the Lithuanian teachers. It may have been the scholastic teaching of grammar or a lack of contacts with the native speakers, but foreign teachers of English as a foreign language tend to use the rudimentary grammar which makes only half of the meaning of the utterance in English. It is impossible, though, to make up for the ignored part of the meaning of the utterance while studying even the best of grammars. To know and to have a habit of usage are different things. I would tend to believe that one s mind set should accompany the learning as well as the association with the native speakers. People of my generation remember how great the impression was when we first heard the native speakers of English and felt our deepest feelings touched. The tentative and sophisticated expression of any statement or comment is not only easy to understand but makes English speaking people appealing beyond measure and indeed well suited by language and temperament to our shrinking world. Please allow me to clarify this last point of language and culture with an example of one of our own. Algirdas Greimas wrote of his aspirations when he and two more of his contemporaries had left for France in 1939 and remembered for what culture they aspired: Culture to us then required no definition. It was the unquestionable and undeniable value unifying people and nations in their superior achievements. It was the word which had to be capitalised and pronounced honouring it with a hat lifted off. We had been delegated to France to acquire the culture and take it along back to Lithuania.... we desired to add a reflection of human culture to the local culture of Lithuania (Greimas, 1998, 195). We have all been familiar with this elevated concept of culture, the culture of the West. Moreover, European upbringing had always been geared for perfection, achievement, for beauty and sophistication in all engagements of man. Language reflects culture in its most delicate and sensitive aspects. One always learns something of the culture while learning a language. But to learn the genuine language one has to learn its idiom and, to use it skilfully, one has to acquire the frame of mind that the culture represents. The customary and 44

45 sophisticated expression of interpersonality marks the frame of the mind of the speaker. When the frame of the mind is not present, sophistication becomes erratic even among the best speakers. Algirdas Greimas again observed its presence and significance. In a documentary, Algirdas Greimas, which was on the Lithuanian TV last spring, Greimas was asked to comment on the intentions of the Russians in the developments in the 1970s. He said they were alerted but they will not last long and commented on his own words: I am speaking Lithuanian here with you. Should I be speaking French, I would not put it this way (, Aš čia su jumis kalbu lietuviškai. Jeigu aš kalbėčiau prancūziškai, aš taip nesakyčiau ). Can there be a better proof of the fact that the attitude and manner of saying something is peculiarly and specifically cultural? I have quoted an observation above which pointed to somebody s liking blunt speaking. Although the French have a saying that the French language means elegance, English speech is tentative, concrete and sophisticated to cause considerable difficulties to aspiring foreigners. It is markedly gentle and polite among the educated speakers to bear an identity which can be acquired only by the joint efforts of the community of the dedicated teachers and of the people who do not fear to accept the culture of the mind, not only that of the word. References 1. Campbell, Lady Colin Etiquette of Good Society. London: Cassell, MCMIII. 2. Carter, Ronald, McMacarthy, Michael The Cambridge Grammar of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3. Cartland, Barbara I Search for Rainbows. London: Arrow Books Ltd. 4. Condon, John Semantics and Communication. New York: Macmillan, London: Collier-Macmillan. 5. Greenbaum, Sidney, Janet Whitcut The Longman Guide to English Usage. London:Longman. 6. Greimas, Algirdas Šis tas apie kultūrą. In: Algirdas Greimas. Gyvenimas ir galvojimas. Vilnius: Vyturys, 1998, Halliday, M.A.K Explorations in the Functions of Langugae. London: Arnold. 8. Halliday, M.A.K System and Function in Language / Edfited by Gunther Kress. London: Oxford University Press. 9. HANSARD, House of Commons Official Report. Parliamentary Debates (HANSARD). London: Her Majesty s Stationary Office, Henderson, B.L.K The English Way. London: Macdonald. 11. Honours and Titles Aspects of Britain. Honours and Titles. Researched and Written by Reference Services, Central Office of Information. London: HMSO, Crown copyright, Janicki, Karol The Foreigner s Langugae in a Sociolinguistic Perspective. Poznan: UAM, Luce, Richard. First Impressions of the USSR. In: Britain-USSR. Published by the Great Britain-USSR Association, No McDowall Britain in Close-Up. London: Longman. 15. Mitford, Nancy Noblesse Oblige. Penguin. 45

46 16. Montague-Smith Debrett s Correct Form. Compiled and Edited by Patrick Montague-Smith. London: Headline Book Publishing PLC. 17. Pinckert, Robert C The Truth About English: How to Write, to Speak and Think with the Language. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 18. Post, Emily Etiquette. The Blue Book of Social Usage. New York, London: Funk & Wagnalls. 19. Post, Elizabeth Emily Post s Etiquette. New York: Harper Collins Publishers. 20. Prodromou, Luke Classroom Implications of Written and Spoken English. In: Views onlanguage and Language Learning. Athens, 1979, Vol.5, No.3, Redmond, Moira Etiquette Today. Tadworth(UK): Elliot Right Way Books, MMIII. 22. Titles Titles and Forms of Address. A guide to their correct use. London: Adam and Charles Black. 23. Turner, G.W Stylistics. Penguin. 24. Warner, Alan A Short Guide to English Style. The English Language Book Society andoxford University Press. 25. Weiner, E.S.C The Oxford Guide to English Usage. Oxford: At the Clarendon Press. 46 Santrauka Tikslios reikšmės aspektai anglų kalboje Liudvika Drazdauskienė Apibrėžus tikslią reikšmę kalboje kaip išraiškos galimybių įvairovę, taip pat išreiškiant skonį ir išsilavinimą, teigiama, kad reikšmės tikslumo galimybės glūdi ir kalbos resursuose, jos lingvistiniame-literatūriniame pavelde. Trumpai apibūdinus aptakumo, modalumo ir korektiškumo kaip tarpasmeninės reikšmės aspektų anglų kalboje pastovumą, tvirtinama, kad tarpasmeninė reikšmė anglų kalboje liudija socialinę kultūrą ir kad dėl jos išraiškos subtilumo ir individualumo šios reikšmės žodinė raiška negali būti mokoma kaip informacija. Anglų kalbą kaip užsienio kalbą besimokančiųjų lietuvių problema pagilėja dar ir dėl to, kad lietuvių kalboje tarpasmeninė reikšmė daug silpniau reiškiama ir daug kur nesama ekvivalentų anglų kalbos tarpasmeninei reikšmei. Ribotos mokymo galimybės tarpasmeninės reikšmės suvokimą padaro ypač svarbų, o šios reikšmės žodinei išraiškai nedaug tepadeda ir naujausios studijos dėl jos efemeriškumo ir individualumo, dėl medžiagos neaprėpiamos gausos ir dėl mokytojo užsieniečio pažeidžiamumo. Teigiama, kad tinkamiausias būdas tarpasmeninei reikšmei kaip sociokultūrinei idiomai įsisavinti galėtų būti profesionalios mokytojų kalbos žinios ir pavyzdinė vartosena, bet mokytojo užsieniečio pažeidžiamumas šiuolaikinėje mokykloje reikalingas vieningos mokytojų bendruomenės, kuri ir puoselėtų išieškotą anglų kalbą, palaikymo. Straipsnis baigiamas išvada, kad tikslios reikšmės išraiška Vakarų kultūros visuomenės kalboje atspindi rafinuotą mąstymo modelį, kurio nereikia bijoti ir kurį dera pasisavinti tam, kuris nori savo kalbos išraiškingumu prilygti anglų kalba kaip gimtąja kalbantiesiems.

47 Zur Rolle der Substantive als Ausdrucksmittel der Vermutung und Ungewissheit in der Gesprächssorte Interview Gražina Droessiger Pädagogische Universität Vilnius, Studentų Str. 39, LT-08106, Vilnius, Litauen, Abstract It is not easy to enumerate all the means of expressing epistemic modality. Most scientific sources distinguishing various types of modality confine themselves to enumerating means of modality in general, without emphasizing the means of expressing separate modality types. Scientific works among means of expressing modality most often mention verbal moods, modal verbs, modal adverbs and words, and modal particles. Nouns are very rarely being related to expressing modality. The aim of the article was to determine what the role of nouns (alongside other means) is in expressing doubt and uncertainty, in other words, epistemic modality in the modern German language. In order to achieve this goal, 50 authentic German written interviews with people more or less known to the society were investigated. The results of the analysis showed that nouns comprise about 7,2% of all means of expressing epistemic modality used in the interviews. Although they are not used particularly often, their variety is surprising. Key words: Kommunikativ-pragmatische Linguistik, epistemische Modalität, Ausdrucksmittel der epistemischen Modalität, Substantiv. EINLEITUNG Modalität und epistemische Modalität als eine der Modalitätsarten stehen im Mittelpunkt des Interesses vieler wissenschaftlicher Untersuchungen. Das Phänomen der Modalität verfügt in der Linguistik über keine einheitliche Definition, jedoch in der Regel wird Modalität als Stellungnahme des Sprechers zum in der Proposition ausgedrückten Inhalt verstanden. Die Unterteilung der Modalität in verschiedene Arten ist problematisch, von Autor zu Autor variieren nicht nur die Bezeichnungen der Modalitätsarten, sondern auch ihre Zahl. Als die am häufigsten zu findende Unterteilung ließe sich inzwischen wohl die Unterteilung der Modalität in epistemische und deontische bezeichnen. Die Ausdrucksmittel der Modalität, welcher Art auch immer, bleiben oft am Rande der Aufmerksamkeit, komplexe Untersuchungen dazu sind rar. Substantive werden in 47

48 linguistischen Werken als Ausdrucksmittel der Modalität selten erwähnt. Nur einige wenige Quellen schenken auch dieser Wortart als Ausdrucksmittel der Modalität Aufmerksamkeit. Der vorliegende Beitrag setzt sich deswegen zum Ziel, die Egebnisse einer empirischen Untersuchung zu Substantiven als epistemischen Ausdrucksmitteln zu präsentieren und auf diese Weise die Rolle der Substantive beim Ausdruck der epistemischen Modalität im Sprachgebrauch des Gegenwartsdeutschen genauer zu bestimmen. Von Interesse war für die Untersuchung vor allem die Verwendungshäufigkeit der Substantive im Vergleich zu anderen epistemischen Ausdrucksmitteln, aber auch ihre Vielfalt war von Bedeutung. Die Korpusgrundlage dafür bildeten 50 authentische, mündliche (schriftlich fixierte) deutschsprachige Interviews 1 mit in der Öffentlichkeit mehr oder weniger bekannten, jeweils unterschiedlichen Personen. Die Interviews stammen aus dem Internet und haben zum Thema die sog. Lebensart bzw. den Lebensstil unverbindliches Gespräch über Arbeit, Privatleben und Freizeit. 1. ZUM BEGRIFF DER EPISTEMISCHEN MODALITÄT UND ZU IHREN AUSDRUCKSMITTELN In der linguistischen Fachliteratur finden sich verschiedene Definitionen der Modalität und deren Einteilung in einzelne Arten. Als eine der Arten wird oft die sog. epistemische 2 Modalität erwähnt. Im Metzler Lexikon Sprache findet dieser Terminus folgende Erklärung: Bez. zur Charakterisierung des Erkenntnisstatus einer Aussage; e. Modalitäten sind: es wird angenommen, vermutet, geglaubt, es ist wahrscheinlich (Glück 2000: 188). Oft wird die epistemische Modalität in Verbindung mit solchen Begriffen wie die Wahrheit, die Wirklichkeit, die Gewissheit, der Glaube, die Geltung gebracht, vgl. Asher dazu: Epistemische Modalität bezeichne the speaker s beliefs concerning the state of affairs ( ) (Asher 1994: 2516); Bennet: ( ) speaker s attitude to the truth of what is claimed (Bennet 2002: 125). Auch Vater, Doitchinov, Fritz sprechen in Bezug auf epistemische Modalität vom Wahrheitsgehalt der Proposition (vgl. Vater 2001: 81; Doitchinov 2001: 111; Fritz 2000: 86). Auch wenn sich die Termini sowie formelle Definitionen der epistemischen Modalität unterscheiden, kann damit prinzipiell der Überzeugungs- bzw. der Gewissheitsgrad des Sprachbenutzers bezeichnet werden. Da der Überzeugungs- oder der Gewissheitsgrad des Sprechers unterschiedlich sein kann, lässt sich epistemische Modalität in drei Bereiche einteilen eine deutlich ausgedrückte Vermutung (Es muss geregnet haben, denn 1 Es handelt sich insgesamt um ca Wörter. 2 In der wissenschaftlichen Fachliteratur finden sich auch weitere Begriffe, die sich als teilweise oder vollkommene Synonyme zu epistemisch bezeichnen lassen, z.b. subjektive, kommunikativ-grammatische, inferenzielle Modalität. 48

49 die Straßen sind nass), die Ungewissheit/Unsicherheit 3 (Es kann/ könnte geregnet haben) sowie die betonte Gewissheit (Es hat bestimmt geregnet). 4 Die Ausdrucksmittel der epistemischen Modalität stellen einen schwierigen Fall dar. In der Regel begrenzt man sich in Quellen, die verschiedene Modalitätsarten aussondern, auf eine allgemeine Aufzählung modaler Ausdrucksmittel, ohne Rücksicht auf einzelne Arten zu nehmen. In der deutschen Linguistik findet sich diese Bezeichnung meist allein in Bezug auf die Modalverben. Wird unter dem Begriff epistemisch mehr oder weniger die (eingeschränkte) Gewissheit des Sprechers verstanden, d.h. verschiedene Grade einer Vermutung, so werden als epistemische Ausdrucksmittel in fast allen Quellen vor allem die Modi des Verbs, die Modalwörter bzw. -adverbien sowie die Modalverben (in deutschsprachigen Untersuchungen auch die Partikeln) erwähnt. Sandhöfer-Sixel (1988) zählt hierzu z.b. parenthetische Verben, Modalverben, den Konjunktiv, Partikeln, verschiedene Phraseolexeme sowie syntaktische Mittel. Nuyts (2001) spricht von modalen Adverbien und Adjektiven, epistemischen Verben 5 (mental state predicates) und Modalverben. Über Modalwörter und Modalverben sprechen auch Holvoet/Judžentis, wobei sie zu den ersteren auch die Partikeln zählen (vgl. 2004: 82). Coates erwähnt ebenso sog. Diskursmarkierer (discourse markers), unter denen sie u.a. parenthetisch verwendete epistemische Verben versteht (vgl. 2003: 331). Sommerfeldt/ Schreiber/ Starke (1991) zählen zu den Ausdrucksmitteln des Geltungsgrades neben den traditionell erwähnten Modalverben und Modalwörtern auch Wortgruppen, Partikeln, verbale Konstruktionen und futurische Tempusformen. Substantive werden in der wissenschaftlichen Fachliteratur mit der (epistemischen) Modalität selten in Verbindung gebracht, als Ausdrucksmittel der Modalität werden sie z.b. in Usonienė (vgl. 2004: 76-85) erwähnt. Mehr Aufmerksamkeit wird ihnen in Sommerfeldt/Schreiber/Starke (1991) geschenkt. Im von den Autoren entworfenen Makrofeld Geltungsgrad nehmen Substantive am Konstituieren jedes der vier Mikrofelder teil und spielen somit beim Ausdruck der subjektiven Modalität eine wichtige Rolle (vgl. Sommerfeldt/Schreiber/ Starke 1991: 21-25). 3 Die Ungewissheit ist ihrem Wesen nach heterogen. Hier handelt es sich um schwache Annahmen, um Möglichkeit, aber auch um das Unsichersein, das das Resultat nicht nur ungenügender Kenntnisse, sondern auch der Vorsicht, der Höflichkeit, der Distanzierung ist. Somit zählt zum Kreis der Unsicherheit auch das Phänomen des Hedgings. 4 Die betonte Gewissheit stellt implizit ausgedrückte Epistemizität dar. Der Sprecher möchte seinen Standpunkt betonen und den Zuhörer von seiner Wahrheit überzeugen, wodurch die Aussage die Schattierung einer Beteuerung erhält. 5 Epistemisches Verb ist zwar ein in der Linguistik häufig verwendeter, jedoch kein feststehender Begriff. Im vorliegenden Beitrag werden darunter Verben (außer den Modalverben) verstanden, die zum Ausdruck eingeschränkter Sprechergewissheit beitragen, z.b. annehmen, vermuten etc. 49

50 2. SUBSTANTIVE ALS AUSDRUCKSMITTEL DER VERMUTUNG UND DER UNGEWISSHEIT Die Untersuchung von 50 deutschen Interviews hat gezeigt, dass Substantive am Ausdruck der epistemischen Modalität durchaus teilhaben können. Von insgesamt 2093 Belegen mit den Ausdrucksmitteln der epistemischen Modalität entfallen auf die Substantive und Wortverbindungen (darunter auch Phraseologismen), die ein Substantiv enthalten, 151 Belege. In den Belegen handelt es sich nicht nur um die Vermutungen des Sprechers selbst, sondern auch um diejenigen anderer Personen, die der Sprecher wiedergibt. Die Intensität und die Färbung der epistemischen Modalität, die mit Hilfe der Substantive zum Ausdruck kommt, umfasst die Skala von einer deutlichen Vermutung bis zur betonten Gewissheit. Da sich jedoch genauere Grenzen zwischen einzelnen Bereichen eher theoretisch ziehen lassen, wird im Weiteren auf die Unterteilung der Substantive dem Gewissheitsgrad nach verzichtet. In eckigen Klammern wird die Zahl der gefundenen Belege mit dem jeweiligen Substantiv angegeben. Viele Substantive kommen in den Interviews jeweils nur einmal vor, z.b. die Erwartung, die Behauptung, der Versuch. Der mit ihrer Hilfe ausgedrückte Gewissheitsgrad kann unterschiedlich sein. Eine starke epistemische Bedeutung weisen die Substantive das Bedenken [1] und der Zweifel [1] auf: (1) Da ich aber früher ein reiner Thriller-Autor war, hatte ich erst mal Bedenken, ob ich überhaupt der Richtige für den Jugendbereich bin. (Wolf) (2) Sie verstehen sich auch weiterhin als Journalist? Kerner: Diese Tatsache werden die vernünftigen Kräfte auch in der Redaktion der ZEIT nicht in Zweifel ziehen. (Kerner) Eine Annahme wird im folgenden Beleg mit Hilfe des Substantivs die Theorie [1] signalisiert: (3) Meine Theorie ist: Die Zwillinge haben das Gefühl, dass erst sie das wahre Polen repräsentieren, das bisher immer betrogen wurde. (Möller) Der Glaube [1] und die Überzeugung [1] signalisieren eine Vermutung mit starker Tendenz zur Gewissheit. Das Substantiv die Suggestion [1] kann ebenso als ein epistemisches Signal gedeutet werden, weil es in (4) einen falschen Glauben impliziert: (4) Dabei sollte man allerdings weder in Kosten-Nutzen-Denken verfallen, noch dem Glauben aufsitzen, je mehr Leute ich kenne, desto akzeptierter bin ich. Das ist pure Suggestion. (Bathen) (5) Um als Frau akzeptiert zu sein, muss man schön sein und etwas leisten. Und schön sein bedeutet für viele schlank sein. Diese Überzeugung kann verheerend wirken. (Gerlinghoff) 50

51 Als ein zusätzliches epistemisches Signal dient in (5) das epistemische Verb bedeuten. In den Passagen, in denen Substantive mit epistemischer Bedeutung vorkommen, gibt es oft noch weitere epistemische Mittel. Eine starke epistemische Bedeutung hat z.b. auch das Substantiv der Verdacht [1]. Im folgenden Fall steht es in Verbindung mit der verbalen Konstruktion nahe liegen, die ebenso eine Annahme impliziert: (6) Woran können Angehörige erkennen, dass etwas nicht stimmt? (...); Gewichtsabnahme trotz reichhaltiger Nahrungszufuhr, wobei der Verdacht des Erbrechens nahe liegt; (...) (Gerlinghoff) Eine Vermutung bzw. ein Zweifel können auch durch Substantive zum Ausdruck kommen, die an sich keine Vermutung bedeuten und erst in einem Gesamtkontext diese Färbung bekommen. Solche Fälle bilden die Substantive der Ernst [1] und das Märchen [1], wobei der Zweifel in (8) auch mit Hilfe des Konjunktivs II zum Ausdruck kommt: (7) Mein absolutes Vorbild ist Peter Alexander, der hat keine großartigen Skandale gehabt, der war immer seriös und hat das Private mit dem Beruflichen unter einen Hut gebracht. Das ist nicht Ihr Ernst. Doch. (Silbereisen) (8) Natürlich sind meine Zuschauer überwiegend älter. Aber es ist doch ein Märchen, dass andere Samstagabend-Sendungen wesentlich jüngere Zuschauer hätten. Wer guckt denn am Samstagabend um 20 Uhr 15 Wetten, dass..? oder Wer wird Millionär? (Silbereisen) Einen ähnlichen Fall, in dem die epistemische Färbung kontextbedingt ist, bildet der folgende Beleg. Die Vermutung kommt durch das Substantiv Wahres, das durch das Pronomen etwas eingeschränkt ist, sowie durch die Form einer mehr oder weniger rhetorischen Frage mit der abschließenden Partikel oder zum Ausdruck: (9) Das spielt alles so n bisschen mit rein, aber letztendlich kommt man in einer Serie nie ganz ohne Klischees aus. Das gehört einfach dazu, und irgendwie ist an Klischees ja auch immer etwas Wahres dran, oder? (Wolf) Dabei impliziert auch das Substantiv das Klischee an sich einen leichten Zweifel. Ein weiteres ähnliches Substantiv ist die Wette. In Verbindung mit dem Verb abschließen drückt es einen Glauben aus, in diesem Fall im Bereich der Potenzialität: (10) Würden Sie eine Wette auf die Zukunft seiner Sendung abschließen? So wie Rudi Carrell Euro wettete, dass Sie mit Ihrer Late Night scheitern. (Engelke) Ungewissheit wird durch die Substantive der Plan [2], das Konzept [1] und die Vision [1] ausgestrahlt, weil sie sich auf mentale Gegebenheiten in einem futurischen 51

52 Kontext beziehen, wobei das letztere Substantiv im folgenden Beleg im Widerspruch zu seinem Attribut genau steht: (11) Und das muss halt jemand sein, der eine genaue Vision, einen genauen Plan hat, ein Konzept hat von dem, wie er den Film machen will, in welche Richtung er die Figuren haben will. (Ochsenknecht) Viele andere Substantive sind in den Interviews auch mehrmals zu finden. Als eine geschlossene Gruppe können folgende feste Wortgruppen betrachtet werden: meiner Meinung nach [5], der Meinung sein [4], meines Erachtens [3] sowie meiner Ansicht nach [2]. Mit ihrer Hilfe gibt der Sprecher zu verstehen, dass er sich von der allgemeingültigen Wahrheit distanziert bzw. dass er nur eine mögliche Meinung äußert und keinen Anspruch hat, sie für die einzig richtige zu halten: (12) Sie spielen darauf an, ob wir nicht alle das Böse, die Aggression und den Tötungswunsch in uns haben, den wir dann beim Krimilesen ausleben können. Das wird meiner Meinung nach überschätzt. (J. Hoffmann) (13) Ich bin der Meinung, dass sich die Probleme, die man später im Leben mit der Liebe und überhaupt hat, aus der Art und der Menge der Liebe ergeben, die man als Kind bekommen hat. (Flint) (14) Aber echte Verwurzelung und Heimatgefühle kann wohl erst die zweite oder gar dritte Generation empfinden. Und meiner Ansicht nach hängt es auch stark davon ab, ob die Mütter die Integration ihrer Kinder fördern. (Stolle) In Fragen kommen ähnliche Konstruktionen vor: aus Ihrer Sicht [3] und Ihrer Schätzung nach [1]. Sie beschützen den Gesprächspartner, weil er für die absolute Wahrheit des Gesagten nicht haften muss: (15) Sie haben uns ein paar Übungen zum Thema Sicherer Auftritt gezeigt. Wie nutzen aus Ihrer Sicht solche Übungen jemandem, der am Schreibtisch arbeitet? (Friesinger) (16) Wie viele junge Witwen und Witwer gibt es Ihrer Schätzung nach? Martina Nicolaidis: Es gibt laut statistischem Bundesamt junge Witwen und Witwer im Alter zwischen 20 und 49 Jahren. (Nicolaidis) In Fragen kommt ein leichter Zweifel auch durch die Wortfügung j-m kommt der Gedanke [2] zum Ausdruck. Das am häufigsten verwendete Substantiv ist das Substantiv das Gefühl [19]. Es wird gebraucht, wenn es um Scheinbares geht. Im folgenden Beispiel entsteht durch das Modalwort wirklich eine Tendenz zur absoluten Gewissheit: 52

53 (17) Und wenn ich mich an die Zeit nach dem 11. September erinnere: als ich in der ersten Woche nach den Anschlägen auf die Bühne gegangen bin, da hatte ich wirklich das Gefühl, dass die Leute besonders laut lachen und besonders viel klatschen. (R. Hoffmann) Der Konjunktiv II kann die Bedeutung einer Annahme bekräftigen: (18) Er konnte einfach zuhören, die Frauen fühlten sich völlig aufgehoben und hatten das Gefühl, sie könnten ihm alles anvertrauen. (Heinze) Eine ähnliche epistemische Bedeutung hat das Substantiv das Gespür [2]. Mit Hilfe des Substantivs eine Art [12] vermeidet der Sprecher eine absolute Aussage: (19) Ich weiß nicht, ob Ehepaar es auch treffen würde, aber Hugo ist wie eine Art Bruder für mich. (von Sinnen) Die Substantive die Gefahr [8] und die Bedrohung [1] haben die Schattierung einer schwachen Annahme bzw. einer Möglichkeit: (20) Reden Sie mit privaten Freunden auch über Politik? Angela Merkel: Die Gefahr dabei ist immer, dass über dem Absprechen von Politik der ganze Abend vergeht und ich gar nicht zu dem komme, was mich von den anderen interessiert. (Merkel) (21) Da hätte ich die Frage: inwiefern sehen Sie die Technik beim Film als Hilfe, inwiefern aber auch als Bedrohung für die realen Schauspieler? Herbig: Ich glaube nicht, dass der Computer irgendwann Schauspieler grundsätzlich ersetzen wird. (Herbig) Die Substantive die Vorstellung [6] und das Verständnis [1] implizieren eine von vielen möglichen Meinungen: (22) Das ist bei Mackie Messer gar nicht so anders er ist ein moralischer Verbrecher. Seine Vorstellung von Leben ist ja fast spießig, aber bei Bedarf tritt er auch eiskalt in die Fresse. (Campino) (23) Vielleicht sollte man sie nicht mehr als Seelenverwandtschaft verstehen, nicht mehr im klassischen Verständnis als Brüder im Geiste, die zusammen durch Dick und Dünn gehen, sondern eher wertneutral. (Bathen) Als epistemisches Signal dient auch das Substantiv der Eindruck [6]: (24) Haben Sie als erfolgreiche Frau manchmal den Eindruck, dass Ihnen Männer ängstlich oder misstrauisch begegnen? (Dörrie) 53

54 Die Gewissheit des Sprechers kann durch im Prinzip [3] und im Grunde genommen [3] abgeschwächt werden. In Äußerungen mit diesen Fügungen ist eine Unsicherheit, ein kleiner Zweifel zu spüren: (25) Und wenn man nachts aufwacht und nicht wieder einschläft? Prof. Jürgen Zulley: Dann gilt im Prinzip dasselbe: Man sollte alles tun, um sich wohl zu fühlen und entspannen zu können. (Zulley) (26) Diese Ruhelosigkeit ist im Grunde genommen aber auch der Antriebsmotor und deswegen ist man eigentlich immer an einem Punkt, wo man mehr gefordert werden will, neue und schwierige Rollen annehmen will. (Heinze) Eine schwache Annahme, die an eine Möglichkeit grenzt, kann mit Hilfe der Substantive die Chance [4] und das Risiko [3] ausgedrückt werden: (27) Mit so einem Film hat man die Chance, eine politische Botschaft einem breiten Publikum näher zu bringen. (Ferres) (28) Und wer monatelang zu kurz schläft, kann Bluthochdruck, Magen-Darm- und massive psychische Probleme bekommen. So besteht zum Beispiel ein viermal größeres Risiko für eine Depression als bei guten Schläfern. (Zulley) Eine Annahme kann auch durch das Substantiv das Zeichen [2] realisiert werden: (29) Es ist ja so, dass du in jeder Soap ein lesbisches Pärchen hast, wir haben einen schwulen Bürgermeister, wir haben schwule Politiker... das ist sind alles recht starke Zeichen dafür, dass es hier akzeptiert wird. (Tabatabai) Eine einzelne Gruppe bilden Substantive sowie Wortgruppen mit Substantiven, die zum Ausdruck der betonten Gewissheit dienen: auf jeden Fall [18], auf keinen Fall [4], ohne jeden Zweifel [1], keine Frage [3], mit Sicherheit [2] und die Sicherheit [1]. Die Befürchtung des Sprechers, dass der Zuhörer ihm nicht glaubt, verleiht solchen Äußerungen Epistemizität etwas anderer Art als in den oben behandelten Belegen, denn der Zweifel bleibt hier implizit ausgedrückt.: (30) Im Moment sind Familie und Kind für mich einfach wichtiger, aber ich freue mich auf jeden Fall darauf, irgendwann wieder zu arbeiten. (Woll) (31) Ich wollte es mir auf keinen Fall zu leicht machen, nicht ein erneutes Scheitern zulassen. Ich wollte außerdem auf keinen Fall, dass man sagt: Die heiratet, weil sie in der CDU ist und sonst nicht Frauenministerin sein kann. (Merkel) Der Sprecher möchte höflich sein und eventuelle an ihn gerichtete Unterstellungen vermeiden: 54

55 (32) Die Schweiz ist ein glückliches Land, ohne jeden Zweifel, ein herrliches Land. Aber wenn ich an den Schweizern etwas auszusetzen haben, dann ist das immer das Gleiche: Eine gewisse Langweiligkeit, die etwas zu sauber geputzten Straßen. (Jürgens) SCHLUSSFOLGERUNGEN Die Untersuchung von 50 deutschen Interviews hat gezeigt, dass mit Hilfe der Substantive Vermutungen und Ungewissheit des Sprechers ausgedrückt werden können. Somit können Substantive als Ausdrucksmittel der epistemischen Modalität bezeichnet werden. Ihre Verwendungshäufigkeit von 7,2% ist im Vergleich zum Gebrauch anderer epistemischer Mittel in den Interviews nicht sehr hoch sie befinden sich nach den Adverbien, epistemischen Verben sowie Modalverben auf dem vierten Platz (Diagramm 1), auffallend ist an ihnen jedoch ihre Vielfalt, denn in dieser Kategorie befinden sich 45 unterschiedliche Lexeme. Adverbien und epistemische Verben als zahlreichste Gruppen der Ausdrucksmittel weisen entsprechend jeweils 40 und 47 unterschiedliche Lexeme auf Adverbien Epist. Verben Modalverben Substantive Konjunktiv II Adjektive Partikeln Sonstiges Verwendungshäufigkeit in % Diagramm 1. Ausdrucksmittel der epistemischen Modalität Etwa 50% der Substantive kommen in den Interviews jeweils nur einmal vor, die restlichen wurden von den Sprechern jeweils zwei-, dreimal und öfter verwendet. Substantive, wie auch andere Ausdrucksmittel der epistemischen Modalität, erwiesen sich als kontextgebunden. Die Intensität und/oder die Schattierung einer durch ein Substantiv ausgedrückten Vermutung kann in Abhängigkeit davon schwanken, welche weiteren epistemischen Mittel sich neben dem Substantiv in derselben Redesituation befinden. Manche Substantive erhalten die epistemische Färbung allein durch den Kontext, als isolierte Lexeme verfügen sie über keine epistemische Bedeutung. Quellenverzeichnis 1. Bathen, D Boehm, G. von 55

56 3. Bucher, A Campino 5. Dörrie, D Engelke, A Ferres, V Fischer, B Friesinger, A Gerlinghoff, M Heinze, Th Herbig, M Hoffmann, J. hoffmann/index.html 14. Hoffmann, R Kerner, J. B Merkel, A. html 17. Möller, S Nicolaidis, M. html 19. Ochsenknecht, U. knecht-uwe Riemann, K Silbereisen, F Sinnen, H. von Stolle, Ch Tabatabai, J Wolf, Stefan Zulley, Jürgen 56 Literaturverzeichnis 1. Asher R. E. (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Volume 5. Oxford New York Seoul Tokyo: Pergamon Press. 2. Bennet, Paul Semantics: an Introduction to Non-Lexical Aspects of Meaning. München: Lincom. 3. Coates, Jennifer The role of epistemic modality in women s talk. In: Facchinetti, Roberta; Krug, Manfred; Palmer; Frank (eds.) Modality in Contemporary English. Berlin New York: de Gruyter. p

57 4. Doitchinov, Serge Es kann sein, daß der Junge ins Haus gegangen ist Zum Erstspracherwerb von können in epistemischer Lesart. In: Müller, Reimar; Reis, Marga (Hrsg.) (2001): Modalität und Modalverben im Deutschen. Hamburg: Buske. S Fritz, Thomas A Grundlagen der Modalität im Deutschen. In: Eichinger, Ludwig M.; Leirbukt, Oddleif (Hrsg.) (2000): Aspekte der Verbalgrammatik. Hildesheim Zürich New York: Olms. S Glück, Helmut (Hrsg.) Metzler Lexikon Sprache. Stuttgart Weimar: Metzler. 7. Holvoet, Axel; Judžentis, Artūras (2004): Nuosakos kategorijos struktūra. In: Holvoet, Axel; Semėnienė, Loreta (red.) Gramatinių kategorijų tyrimai. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. p Nuyts, Jan Epistemic Modality, Language, and Conceptualization: a cognitivepragmatic perspective. Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 9. Sandhöfer-Sixel, Judith Modalität und gesprochene Sprache. Ausdrucksformen subjektiver Bewertung in einem lokalen Substandard des Westmitteldeutschen. Stuttgart: Steiner. 10. Sommerfeldt, Karl-Ernst; Schreiber, Herbert; Starke, Günter Grammatisch-semantische Felder. Berlin: Langenscheidt. 11. Usonienė, Aurelija Modalumas anglų ir lietuvių kalbose: forma ir reikšmė. Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla. 12. Vater, Heinz Sollen und wollen zwei ungleiche Brüder. In: Vater, Heinz; Letnes, Ole (Hrsg.) (2001): Modalität und mehr / Modality and More. Trier: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag. S. p Santrauka Daiktavardžių vaidmuo išreiškiant abejonę bei netikrumą pokalbio rūšyje interviu Gražina Droessiger Išvardyti episteminio modalumo raiškos priemones nėra lengva, nes daugumoje mokslo šaltinių, skiriančių įvairias modalumo rūšis, apsiribojama bendru modalumo priemonių išvardijimu, neakcentuojant atskirų modalumo rūšių raiškos priemonių. Kaip modalumo raiškos priemonės mokslo darbuose dažniausiai minimos veiksmažodžio nuosakos, modaliniai veiksmažodžiai, modaliniai prieveiksmiai ir žodžiai bei modalinės dalelytės. Daiktavardžiai su modalumo raiška siejami itin retai. Straipsnio tikslas nustatyti, kokį vaidmenį šalia kitų priemonių vaidina daiktavardžiai kalbančiajam reiškiant abejonę bei netikrumą, o kitaip tariant episteminį modalumą dabartinėje vokiečių kalboje. Šiam tikslui įgyvendinti pasitelkta 50 autentiškų vokiškų raštu fiksuotų interviu su visuomenėje daugiau ar mažiau žinomais asmenimis. Gauti tyrimo rezultatai rodo, kad daiktavardžiai sudaro apie 7,2% visų interviu pavartotų episteminio modalumo raiškos priemonių. Nors nėra vartojami ypač dažnai, jie stebina savo įvairove. 57

58 Employment of Personifying and Dehumanising Metaphors in Carry On, Jeeves by P.G. Wodehouse 58 Ilmera Kauklytė, Linas Selmistraitis Vilnius Pedagogical University, 39 Studentų St., LT-08106, Vilnius, Abstract The aim of the paper is to analyse the employment of personifying and dehumanising metaphors in the text of belles-lettres as a means of deviation and foregrounding. Metaphor theory and its background information are theoretical underpinnings of the research. The method of the research is descriptive-analytical, including the analysis of theoretical statements and description of metaphorical text fragments from Carry On, Jeeves by P.G. Wodehouse. The scope of the research covers description of metaphors according to the type of semantic connection between words resulting in personifying or dehumanising metaphorical characteristics of phenomena and the characters in the novel. The linguistic analysis demonstrated that the majority of dehumanizing metaphors are employed to reflect the negative or taint qualities of a person. Most cases of the metaphorical transfer of this kind include human-animal, human-bird, human-plant, humanobject metaphor pairs. The instances of humanising metaphors deliver human qualities to inanimate objects or abstract concepts and include such features as sensations, emotions, desires, powers of speech, mental abilities, sentimentality, physical gestures and expressions, human deeds and actions. Key words: dehumanizing and personifying metaphor, foregrounding, deviation. INTRODUCTION Language in its simplest form is understood as a system of mental associations of primitive and complex signs. It is also usually treated as a psychological phenomenon of social significance, which occurs in individual minds, and serves the purpose of social intercourse through speech. Metaphor plays a significant role in this intercourse, because our metaphor system is central to our understanding of experience and to the way we act on that understanding. Metaphor is one of the main mechanisms through which we comprehend abstract concepts and perform abstract reasoning. It allows us to understand a relatively abstract or inherently unstructured subject matter in terms of a more concrete, or at least a more highly structured subject matter. The study of metaphor has experienced a considerable shift over the years, changing from a basically linguistic and rhetorical enterprise to a cognitive one

59 (Jaszczolt, 2001). The variety of types of metaphors determined the wide scope of possible approaches to it and at the same time the difficulty to define clearly the concept of metaphor itself. At present metaphors are defined in terms of conceptuality, conventionality, and they primarily belong to both: part of the ordinary system of thought and language. This new status for metaphor has led to a great deal of attention among cognitive scientists, and a wealth of theories and models of metaphor. Current studies reveal that ordinary everyday English is largely metaphorical, arguing the traditional view that metaphor is primarily in the realm of poetic or figurative language (Lakoff, 1980). The role of metaphor in interaction has often been maligned and usually misunderstood. Metaphor has been called not only unhelpful, but harmful, and typically thought of as being limiting, scaling poorly, and leading to faulty thinking about how language works. The universal understanding of metaphor makes it not a homogeneous concept and that is why it has constantly been addressed from different angles and perspectives (Kopp, 1998). Thus, the use of metaphors is pervasive in all forms of discourse. The aim of the present paper is to analyze metaphor in the text of belles-lettres as a means of foregrounding. The cause of writing this paper is accompanied by the development of metaphor theory, and practical literary research. The following objectives are defined to achieve the aim: to sketch briefly the scope of metaphor theory, to analyze dehumanizing and personifying metaphors as a means of foregrounding in the text of Carry on, Jeeves by P.G. Woodhouse. The method of the research is descriptive-analytical, based on the analysis of theoretical statements and analyzing of practical illustrations in belles-lettres text. 1. Metaphor in Stylistic Context Style is, on a surface level, very obviously detectable as the choice between items in a vocabulary, between types of syntactical constructions, between the various ways text can be woven from the material it is made of. It is the information carried in text when compared to other texts, or in a sense compared to language as a whole. This information if seen or detected by the reader will impart to the reader a predisposition to understand the meaning of text in certain ways. Or, more roughly put, style is the difference between different ways of saying the same thing. Naturally, demarcation of stylistic variation to topical variation is impossible. The impossibility of drawing a clean line between meaning and style has lead to much browbeating among stylisticians and linguists. Generally speaking, style may be regarded as a choice of linguistic means, as deviation from a norm, as recurrence of linguistic forms and as comparison. Style concerns the artful expression of ideas. If invention addresses what is to be said; style addresses how this will be said. Stylistic variation depends on author preferences and competence, familiarity, genre, communicative context, expected characteristics of the intended audience and untold other factors, and it is expressed through subtle vari- 59

60 ation in frequencies of otherwise insignificant features of a text that, taken together, are understood as stylistic indicators by a particular reader community. The main engine of any piece of literature is considered to be theory of foregrounding. The term refers to specific linguistic devices, i.e., deviation and parallelism that are used in literary texts in a functional and condensed way. Foregrounding theory was seen as a means of explaining the difference between poetic and everyday language which has become widely accepted as one of the foundations of stylistics. The term foregrounding may be used in a purely linguistic sense. It then refers to new information, in contrast to elements in the sentence which form the background against which the new elements are to be understood by the reader. The very term foregrounding originates with Garvin, who introduced it as a translation of the Czech aktualisace, a term common with the Prague structuralists, especially Jan Mukarovsky, who employs it in the sense of the English actualization (Leech, 2008). According to the theory of foregrounding, metaphor is viewed as a deviation in literature where the employment of unusual forms of language breaks up the reader s routine behaviour. Commonplace views and perspectives are replaced by new and surprising insights and sensations. In this way literature keeps or makes individuals aware of their automatized actions and preconceptions. It thus contributes to general creativity and development. Leech has chosen the adjective deviant to characterize an essential (perhaps the essential) feature of literary language (Leech, 2008, 15). Deviation corresponds to the traditional idea of poetic license: the writer of literature is allowed - in contrast to the everyday speaker - to deviate from rules, maxims, or conventions. These may involve the language, as well as literary traditions or expectations set up by the text itself. The result is some degree of surprise in the reader, and his / her attention is thereby drawn to the form of the text itself (rather than to its content). Cases of neologism, live metaphor, or ungrammatical sentences, as well as archaisms, paradox, and oxymoron (the traditional tropes) are clear examples of deviation. I. Genienė distinguishes two types of deviation: code-regular and code-irregular. The first grouping presents less difficulty in decoding whereas the second ones are more unusual and require greater effort to decode or interpret (e.g. stream of consciousness technique) (Genienė, 2003). Any piece of literal discourse maybe foregrounded on three levels: phonetic, grammatical and semantic. Semantic level proves that words in context, may acquire additional meaning not fixed in the dictionary, which is usually called contextual meaning. Stylistic devices of a certain type are used to denote phenomena that serve to create additional expressive, evaluative, subjective connotations. Such features as metaphor, metonymy or irony may refer to less salient attributes of textual referents. Lengthy reflection may be necessary to identify those less salient and often affective attributes. Semantically deviant sentences are often metaphorically interpreted. At first glance, identification of these instances would seem unproblematic. Unfortunately, semantic deviation is always context sensitive. The metaphorical and metonymical uses of language share the features 60

61 of code-regular deviations which are characteristic not only of literature but also of the mind s characteristics workings as a part of everyday speech (Genienė, 2003 ). G. N. Leech explains linguistic deviation with a concept of foregrounding: < > anyone who wishes to investigate the significance and value of a work of art must concentrate on the element of interest and surprise, rather than on the automatic pattern. Such deviations from linguistics or other socially accepted norms have been given the special name of foregrounding < >. The foregrounded figure is the linguistic deviation, and the background is the language (Leech, 1999, 57). G. N. Leech and other linguists deal with a number of different types of linguistic deviation, distinguishing the three main language levels: realization, form and semantics. Realization is perceived through phonology and graphology, form comprises grammar and lexicon whereas semantics deals with denotative or connotative meanings. The concepts of foregrounding and deviation have been made use of most in textual analysis. They are a useful tool to describe particular characteristics of the text, or to explain its specific poetic effects on the reader. And it may fruitfully be employed to establish a link between purely linguistic description and the functioning literary texts in a culture at large. Moreover, for some scholars metaphors were seen as deviant and needed to be explained in terms of normal language usage. Metaphor play significant roles in the way we think about and understand the world we live in. Every metaphor tells a story, whether we realize it or not (Furniss, 1996). One of the most important powers of metaphors is that it enables us to talk about intangible or abstract things in concrete ways. This is why we tend to use concrete metaphors when we are trying to describe feelings, intangible experiences or ideas. Philosophical and religious discourses make frequent uses of concrete metaphors in order to talk about intangible concepts. Metaphors become natural models that allow us to take familiar, concrete objects and experiences and re-cast them onto unknown or abstract concepts or things, giving them structure and meaning (Erickson, 1991). The explicit analysis of metaphors causes the number of various classifications. It would be futile to offer a full typology of metaphors according to the relation of meaning between literal and figurative senses. Nevertheless, certain types of semantic connection have been traditionally recognized as more important than others. For our investigation we have chosen two types of metaphors, which are opposed to one another, namely, humanizing and dehumanizing metaphors. The humanizing metaphor attributes characteristics of humanity to what is not human. The dehumanizing metaphor attributes inanimate characteristics to the animate. These categories reflect the tendency of metaphors to explain the more undifferentiated areas of human experience in terms of the more immediate. We make abstractions by perceiving them in terms of the concrete, physical world; we grasp the nature of inanimate things more vividly by breathing life into them; the world of nature becomes more real to us when we project into the qualities we recognize in ourselves (Leech, 1999). Metaphor is mostly based on correspondences in human experiences, rather than on similarity which plays a major role in both the grammar and lexicon of a language. 61

62 Metaphoric expressions occur in all forms of communication for presenting the message effectively. Various types of literature such as poetry, humorous and satirical writing, spiritual and religious writing, and even the day-to-day conversations make use of metaphoric expressions. The most exciting and intensive analysis of skilful and creative metaphor implementation may be observed through the analysis of its types. 2. METAPHOR AS A MEANS OF DEVIATION IN P.G WODEHOUSE CARRY ON, JEEVES The present work is confined only to one type of deviation referring to the semantic shifts of the words. The peculiarities of this type of linguistic foregrounding are illustrated by the language of Carry on, Jeeves by P.G. Wodehouse. Linguistic foregrounding is used throughout the whole novel. This is the creation of a psychological effect on the reader in order to make a particular word or phrase especially noticeable, or perceptually prominent. Carry on, Jeeves by P. G. Wodehouse is a funny collection of stories set in the 1920s about the rich, bumbling Englishman Bertie Wooster and his ingenious butler Jeeves, who solves problems faced by Bertie and his friends by figuring out and giving people what they really want, rather than what they think they want. Most of the humour arrives at the sentence level; the situations themselves are generally just absurd. Jeeves is a fun character sort of a servile Sherlock Holmes. With a single exception, all the Bertie Wooster stories are told in the first person by Bertie himself. This allows Wodehouse a comedic paradox: although Bertie himself is, as Jeeves puts it, mentally negligible, his descriptive style employs a considerable facility with English. The charm of Bertie s narrative descriptions and metaphors make the novel very visual and vivid. As it was mentioned this part of the paper will focus on the analysis of metaphor in terms of the meaning relation between literal and figurative senses. Accordingly the analysis evolves around humanizing and dehumanizing metaphors. 2.1 Humanizing metaphor (personification) A humanizing metaphor is one of the most widely employed types of metaphor which is known more familiarly as personification. This sort of technique provides human qualities to inanimate objects or abstract concepts, as if they were living entities. These qualities may include sensations, emotions, desires, physical gestures and expressions, and powers of speech, among others. P. G. Wodehouse s work is soaked with humanizing metaphors which enable the reader make the connection to the symbolism of the novel as a whole. The first instances of humanization emerge in the cases of attributing the mental abilities to things or phenomena. In all the cases mentioned below the adjectival metaphors acquire the function of another stylistic device figurative or transferred epithets. In linguistics an epithet is often metaphoric, essentially a reduced or condensed ones. Consider the following examples. 62

63 I m for it, old boy, absolutely. A very brainy wheeze (Wodehouse, 80). Here the word wheeze stands for a clever and often imaginative idea or plan and is defined by the informal adjective brainy that mostly occurs in the collocation of a human. A certain metaphorical transfer strengthens the idea that the plan is really successful. The following example bears one more expression of human ability: Next morning, after I had sucked down a thoughtful cup of tea, I went into Motty s room to investigate. I expected to find the fellow. (Wodhouse, 54). The word thoughtful attributed to the cup of tea may result in a greater number of interpretations. Firstly, it may imply that the very process of drinking tea may yield good ideas and thoughts. Moreover, the same attribute may be understood in terms of silence and quietness, since the person involved in thinking usually stays calm and mute. However thoughtful referring to tea maybe associated with the state of kindness and happiness. Thus, the metaphor a thoughtful cup of tea can even imply that the person was very happy to have it. A thoughtful cup and a brainy wheeze are attributes of metaphorical nature and become epithets. The next sentence includes epithets dear and intelligent. Both of them stand to represent the soul of the person, i.e. the good and warm personality: How this pearl among women has tracked me down I don t know, but there she stood, bless her dear, intelligent old soul, like the rescue party in the last reel of a motion picture (Wodehouse, 167). The metaphorical expression in the following case, is associated not with the phenomenon but with the animal. As for example in: The sun was sinking over the hills and the gnats were fooling about all over the place, and everything smelled rather topping-what with the falling dew and so on-and I was just beginning to feel a little soothed by the peace of it all when suddenly I heard my name spoken (Wodehouse, 17). Depicting the small insects fooling about the author accounts for their amusing and careless behaviour, which reminds the reader that of a child. Human beings are also very exclusive by their mood and feelings. Consequently this characteristic is skilfully imparted on the inanimate things or objects by many authors. By implementing this sort of metaphor Wodehouse not only intensifies the meaning of word but enlivens the language and creates the right mood on the whole passage. The following sentence may serve as a good example: I shall always remember the morning he came in. It so happened that the night before I had been present at a rather cheery little supper, and was feeling pretty rocky. On top of this I was trying to read a book Florence Craye had given me. She had been one of the houseparty at Easeby, and two or three days before I left we had got engaged (Wodehouse, 1). In this extract the main character of the novel remembers the meeting with his future butler Jeeves. His state of health that morning is perfectly understood through a condensed phrase cheery little supper, and the following statement was feeling pretty rocky. Namely the last words pretty rocky, point out that the metaphoric expression cheery has 63

64 the same function as the understatement. The English explanatory dictionaries the word cheery is defined as bright and happy. However, the main character of the novel feels as if after some wild party. Thus, the choice of a certain attribute is used deliberately to weaken or soften the situation and of course to provide a humorous effect. Although humanizing metaphors mostly act as attributes there are lots of cases when they occupy the position of the predicate. Most probably a well known phrase time heals the wounds may be taken as the best representation of a certain metaphoric expression as in: I simply hadn t dared go back and face her, and it was a relief to find that time had healed the wound enough to make her tell her pals to call on me. What I mean is,much as I liked America, I didn t want to have England barred to me for the rest of my natural; and, believe me, England is a jolly sight too small for anyone to live in with Aunt Agatha, if she really on the war-path (Wodehouse, 50). This metaphor meaning to get over insults, injuries, and hatreds has been repeated and overused for so many times in different contexts that it already became trite and hackneyed. A more refreshing example deals with the unusual usage of verb. This verb is used metaphorically. For instance: I happened to be looking at Florence s profile at the moment, and at this juncture she swung round and gave me a look that went right through me like a knife. Uncle Willoughby meandered back to the library, and there was a silence that you could have dug bits out of with a spoon (Wodehouse, 22). In fact the verb dig retains its dictionary meaning of moving the earth in this extract. However while used in combination with the word silence it suggests it being so intense as if a kind of substance or material. The whole metaphoric phrase in the sentence above bears great irony, because a certain type of silence was found in the library. Hereby the metaphor brings out the deliberate exaggeration hyperbole. 2.2 Dehumanizing metaphor (animal or inanimate property to a human being) Being opposite to a humanizing metaphor, this metaphor ascribes animal or inanimate property to a human being. A dehumanising metaphor reflects the negative qualities of a person usually embodied into some animal. The frequent expressions of stupidity are mostly expressed by ungulate animals like cows, sheep, and lambs. Human indignity and insult can occur not by attributing the features of using a certain kind of animal but sometimes it is possible to refer to one particular species: If you have the resource and courage to carry this thing through, I will take it as evidence that you are not the vapid and shiftless person most people think you are. If you fail, I shall know that your Aunt Agatha was right when she called you a spineless invertebrate and advised me strongly not to marry you (Wodehouse, 10). 64

65 As these animals are on the lowest scale of the evolution system, it may imply that the person described in a certain way bears primitive and socially unacceptable features. One more illustration of the same metaphorical expressions is as follows: The man surely can t be so interesting a companion as all that. Uncle Roderick says he is an invertebrate waster. I could have mentioned a few things that I thought Uncle Roderick was, but my lips were sealed, so to speak (Wodehouse, 166). One more similar instance covering the resemblance to the wild animal is represented within the following lines: It had been the identical look which I had observed in the eye of Honoria Glossop in the days immediately preceding our engagement-the look of a tigress that has marked down its prey (Wodehouse, 162). Therein the look of the woman is exposed through the look of a tigress a wild creature observing its quarry. The sequence of wild and ferocious animals in their metaphoric shift is artistically represented in the following portion: It induces a sort of-well, it s difficult to describe it exactly; but I should imagine a fellow would feel much the same if he happened to be strolling through the jungle with a boyhood chum and met a tigress or a jaguar, or what not, and managed to shin up a tree and looked down and saw the friend of his youth vanishing into the undergrowth in the animal s slavering jaws (Wodehouse, 127). And interesting similitude of a human and animal is presented in the extract bellow: I hadn t expected Freddie to sing with joy when he saw me looming up with child complete,but I did think he might have showed a little more manly fortitude, a little more of the old British bulldog spirit (Wodehouse, 186). The man s fortitude is equalized to a special dog s breed British bulldog, which is smoothcoated, thickset, rather low in stature, but broad, powerful and compact. These animals convey an impression of determination, strength and activity. Bulldogs are very friendly and playful, whilst also being stubborn and protective, characteristics which have helped make the breed one of the unofficial symbols of the United Kingdom. The majority of dehumanizing metaphors occur in a human and bird comparison. Birds have always held significance in human lives. While some animals were companions, others were used for labour or a source a food, the flying companions held another worldly place. They achieved heights unattainable to humans and sung while they did that. Thus a bird mostly occurs as a muse symbolical for the human experience. Easeby wasn t one of those country houses you read about in the society novels, where young girls are lured on to play baccarat and then skinned to the bone of their jewellery, and so on. The house party I had left had consisted entirely of law-abiding birds like myself (Wodehouse, 6) The present example represents a bird as a human being yet in its most positive sense. The epithet law-abiding indicates meekness and obedience of a person like a tamed bird. 65

66 Another line containing the bird image is meant to call up a vivid image of a personal characteristic: No, no! Darling Motty is essentially a home bird. Aren t you, Motty, darling? Motty, who was sucking the knob of his stick,uncorked himself (Wodehouse, 50). The word collocation home bird provides the image of a home-keeping person. Some other examples of a similar strain include: Now tell me, old sport, as man to man, how does one get in touch with that very decent bird Jeeves? Does one ring a bell or shout a bit? I should like to discuss the subject of a good stiff b-and-s with him (Wodehouse, 56). However the intense image of a bird is not always necessarily positive. The negative epithets attributed to this kind of metaphor may create an unpleasant association. For instance: I imagine that Bicky in the past, when you knew him, may have been something of a chump, but it s quite different now. Devilish efficient sort of bird, and looked on in commercial circles as quite the nib (Wodehouse, 76) This example spotlights the idea that commerce and business are not always fair and clean. Well, I mean to say, to bear yourself fitting in the face of an occurrence of this sort you want to be one of those strong, phlegmatic birds who are ready for anything. This type of bloke, I imagine, would simply have cocked an eye at the rug, said to himself (Wodehouse, 215). The extract above is related to the negative human qualities as well. Though the attribute strong may have a positive association at first, the following attribute phlegmatic and a successive relative clause who are ready for anything created the atmosphere of harm. When used in combination with a word jail the word bird in the instance below stands for a criminal or prisoner, holding the negative implication: In his twenty-fifth year, with life opening our before him and all that sort of thing, Oliver Randolph Sipperley had become a jail-bird, and was all my fault (Wodehouse, 151). Vivid figurative portrayal of a dehumanizing metaphor can also be observed in the representation of female characters. Put into the lips of the man the metaphoric expressions of this type usually bear positive connotations, like in: How this pearl among women has tracked me down I don t know, but there she stood, bless her dear, intelligent old soul, like the rescue party in the last reel of a motion picture (Wodehouse, 167). The woman in the sentence above is equalled to a pearl which is treated as one of the most valuable and unique creations in the world. On the other hand there work itself contains several scenes where the metaphorical tool turns a woman into a demon, destructor: The woman is a menace to society, a home-wrecker, and a pest. Do you know what s she done? She s got Rosie to write an article for the rag of hers (Wodehouse, 207). The more obvious example is represented in: 66

67 I d no idea small girls were such demons (Wodehouse, 237). The cases of the dehumanizing metaphor in the work of P.G. Wodehouse deal not only with the humans themselves but with their performed activities or actions as well. As for instance: I d have preferred an undertaker; but I told him to stagger in, and he floated noiselessly through the doorway like a healing zephyr (Wodehouse, 2) The present situation depicts the first impression of Jeeves s appearance. His strange way of walking is presented through the verb float referring to the smooth, one-direction movement of water. Further on the same idea is even more elaborated by the following lines: That impressed me from the start. Meadows had had flat feet and used to clump. This fellow didn t seem to have any feet at all. He just streamed in. He had a grave, sympathetic face, as if he, too, knew what it was to sup with the lads (Wodehouse, 2). The metaphor streamed in is related to the movement of water as well. So here once more the strange movement of the butler is presented through the metaphoric exchange of the verb. The third illustration of a similar kind directly refers to the image of water and straightforwardly depicts the manner of a butler s movement by comparing it to some kind of liquid: He flowed silently out of the room-- he always gives you the impression of being some liquid substance when he moves; and I found that Rocky was surging round with his beastly letter again (Wodehouse, 102) Similar occurrences of the same metaphorical mapping are further evident in the example below: I beg your pardon, sir. I am leaving a small assortment of neckties on the mantelpiece, sir, for you to select according to your preference. I should recommend the blue with the red domino pattern, sir. Then he streamed imperceptibly toward the door and flowed silently out (Wodehouse, 110). CONCLUSIONS The investigation of the P.G. Wodehouse s work Carry on, Jeeves allows the following conclusions to be made: 1. Metaphoric expressions are mostly found as the cases of dehumanizing metaphors, which ascribe animal or inanimate property to human beings. Metaphors of this type are employed in the novel in order to reflect the negative or taint qualities of a person. Most cases of the metaphorical transfer of this kind include human-animal, human-bird, human-plant, human-objects metaphor pairs. 2. Humanizing metaphors deliver human qualities to inanimate objects or abstract concepts and include the following features as sensations, emotions, desires, physical gestures and expressions, and powers of speech, among others. The most common 67

68 examples in the novel deal with the attribution of the mental abilities, sentimentality, human deeds and actions to things or phenomena. 3. P.G. Wodehouse s skilful and artistic wit with a help of metaphors turns instances of speech into unique language units. References 1. Erickson, T. D Working with Interface Metaphors. In: Laurel, Brenda (ed.) The Art of Human-Computer Interface Design, Addison-Wesley. 2. Furniss, T., Bath, M Reading Poetry.Longman. 3. Genienė, I Foregrounding and Deviation. In: Man and the World Journal, Jaszczolt, K.M Semantics and Pragmatics. Meaning in Language and Discourse. Longman. 5. Kopp, B.R. Using Metaphors in Creative Writing Available from english. purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_metaphor.html 6. Lakoff, G., Johnson, M Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 7. Leech, G A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry. London: Longman. 8. Leech, G Langauge in Literature. Style and Foregrounding. Longman. 9. Wodehouse, P.G Carry On, Jeeves. Penguin Books. Santrauka Įasmeninančios ir nuasmeninančios metaforos P.G. Wodehouse romane Carry On, Jeeves Ilmera Kauklytė, Linas Selmistraitis Šio straipsnio tikslas išanalizuoti įasmeninančių ir nuasmeninančių metaforų vaidmenį grožinės literatūros kūrinyje P.G. Wodhouse,,Carry on, Jeeves. Straipsnyje pateikiama metaforų analizė pagal jų semantinę ir stilistinę funkciją tekste. Tyrimo metodas aprašomasis-analitinis, paremtas atitinkama teorijos analize ir Carry on, Jeeves metaforinių pavyzdžių aprašymu. Metaforos apibūdinamos per semantinį ryšį su kitais žodžiais. Tyrimas parodė, kad P.G. Wodhouse dažniausiai vartoja nuasmeninančias metaforas, kurios priskiria gyvūnų ar negyvų daiktų savybes žmonėms. Dauguma nuasmeninančių metaforų romane atspindi neigiamas arba nepriimtinas žmogaus savybes. Daugelis tokių metaforinių posakių susiję su žmogaus-gyvūno, žmogaus-paukščio, žmogaus-augalo, žmogaus-daikto sugretinimais. Įasmeninančios metaforos suteikia daiktams ir reiškiniams pojūčius, emocijas, galimybę judėti ir kalbėti. 68

69 The Impact of English on Present-day German Éva Kovács EKF Department of English Studies, 3300 Eger, Egészségház út 4, Hungary, Abstract It is a natural phenomenon in the life of languages that one word is taken from one language into another. Nowadays we can witness an influx of borrowings from English into German just like in other languages. They can be found in almost every field of life ranging from computer science, medicine, through business life, advertising to fashion, sport and entertainment. It is perhaps not surprising that even German coursebooks written for beginners abound in them, let us just think of examples, such as der Computer, -, die , -s, das Handy, -s, die Jeans, -, der Job -s, der Mausklick or joggen. INTRODUCTION In the life of languages it is a natural phenomenon that one word or expression is taken from one language into the other. These days we can witness a considerable spread of anglicisms in almost all languages, and German is not an exception, either. That anglicisms in German represent a not at all negligible tendency is also shown by the fact that not only German magazines abound in them, but even German course books for beginners contain quite a great number of them. Let us just think of such words of English origin as der Job,-s, das Handy,-s, die ,-s, der Fan,-s, das Steak,- s, das Snowboard, -s, die SMS, die Web-Seite, -n, der Business-Sprachkurs, -e, der Joggingsschuh, -e, das Picknickwetter or joggen, chatten, which I have found in a recently published course book called Schritte 1 international (Niebisch et al. 2006). Recognising the importance of this quite natural phenomenon in German, Carstensen et al. published a three-volume dictionary of anglicisms titled Anglizismen-Wörterbuch in 1993, 1994 and 1996, which contains more than 3500 examples of borrowings documented from the end of World War II until the early 1990s. The primary aim of this paper is to explore the impact of English in Germany today. First, I will highlight the functional range and domains of use of anglicisms. Secondly, I will look at their classification possibilities. Finally, I will investigate how these foreign terms are integrated into the system of the German language, with respect to their orthographic, phonological, morphological and semantic properties. 69

70 1. FUNCTIONAL RANGE AND DOMAINS OF USE OF ANGLICISMS IN PRESENT-DAY GERMAN Several linguists have done research to explore the functional range and domains of the phenomenon of English in the German language today. Galinsky (1967) and Yang (1990) refer to the following stylistic functions for anglicisms: 1. conveying an American atmosphere or setting, e.g. Greenwich Village, First Lady, Cowboy, High-school, Campus or College, 2. establishing or enhancing precision (e.g. der Job in German refers to a temporary position or part-time work to earn extra money, or der Killer refers only to somebody who kills cold-blooded for money) 3. creating or facilitating intentional disguise, e.g. Bordell ~ Appartmenthaus, Eros- Center, Prostituirte ~ Hostess, Drogenabhängiger ~ Fixer 4. effecting brevity, e.g. Boom ~ Wirtschaftsaufschwung, Budget ~ Haushaltsplan, Campus ~ Universitätsgebäude 5. producing vividness, often by way of metaphor, e.g. Brainwashing ~ Gehirnwäsche, or Summit conference ~ Gipfelkonferenz 6. conveying comic or playful touch 7. creating or increasing variation of expression, e.g. Baby ~ Säugling, Fan ~ Anhänger, Boß ~ Chef, Team ~ Mannschaft and Ticket ~ Fahrschein, etc. The above mentioned authors generally point out the followings main domains of anglicisms: politics and public life Politprominenz, Splittergruppe, Hardliner, Image, Comeback, Revival, Trend business and commerce Boom, Budget, Cash, Deal Leasing, E-Banking, Joint Venture, Marketing, Shareholder, outsourcen, Onlineshopping, technology and science Computer, Laser, Mikroprozessor, Test, Hacker, Software, Recycling, Overheadprojektor, Flipchart, Keyboard, entertainment and leisure: Bar, Comics, Festival, Happening, Party, Quiz, Show, Bestseller, Nonstop-Kino, Nightclub, Breakdance, Big Brother, Pub fashion and clothes Deodorant, Jumper, Look, Lotion, Make-up, Pullover, Slip, Tweed, Bluejeans, Piercing, Outdoorbekleidung, T-Shirt, Shorts, food and drinks Chips, Longdrink, Cocktail, Grapefruit, mixen, Brunch, Sherry, Toast, Curry, Coke, Hot Dog, Popcorn, Shake, Junkfood, Cheeseburger, sports Aerobics, Bodybuilding, Bungy-jumping, Coach, Fitness, Fan, Jetboat, kicken, Rafting, Safty-car, Snowboard, Squash, Surfing, Team, etc. As observed by Corr (2003), the language of specialist topics or specialist terminology is the area where the greatest amount of borrowing from English terminology takes place. Technical language abound in anglicisms, such as in the areas of engineering, electronics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine and computer technology. Consider the following examples which are used in computer science: foreign words: , Homepage, Internet, Laptop, Software, loan translations: Brenner (burner), Mausklick 70

71 (mouse click), Passwort (pass word), Webseite (website), Dateiname (file name) and loan meanings: Benutzer (user), Drucker (printer), Rechner (computer), Speicher (memory) etc. (cf. Corr, 2003, ). Besides, foreign words have a greater prestige than native ones in certain areas. The young generation, teenagers in particular associate a certain degree of coolness with using numerous anglicisms in their speech and regard them trendy. Pop music is often associated with young people, and a great number of the most popular and successful recordings they listen to are in English. Thus it is not surprising that the role of English within the domain of popular music and in the language young people use is a conspicuous one (Discjockey, Heavy Metal, Rockmusik, Rap, Song, and Techno, etc.). Now it seems to be worthwhile to examine how anglicisms can be classified and how they are integrated into the system of present-day German in terms of their orthography, phonology, morphology and semantics. 2. CLASSIFICATION OF ANGLICISMS Various scholars (cf. Yang 1990, Carstensen 1993, Corr 2003 and Onysko 2007, etc.) have classified anglicisms in German in different ways. Yang (1990, 11) makes a distinction between foreign words and loan words, describing how they differ from each other with regard to their various levels of integration. Foreign words are lexemes or connecting lexemes which are borrowed from a foreign language and are assimilated into the receptor language without any orthographical, morphological or semantic change and whose foreign origin is clearly and easily recognisable. In Onysko s interpretation (2007, 14), these are the so called direct borrowings which have kept their foreign spelling and pronunciation, or their pronunciation is slightly changed complying with the sound system of the German language, e.g Business, Boom, Designer, Detail, Jeans, Laptop, Meeting, Notebook, Team, T-Shirt and Ticket, etc. A loan word is similar to a foreign word as it is also a word borrowed from a foreign language, but it has been adapted phonologically and/or morphologically and/or orthographically to the borrowing language. Loan words can be loan translations, loan renditions or semantic loans (cf. Yang, 1990, 11, Corr, 2003, 28). A loan translation is where each individual part of the word from the donor language is rendered literally by its counterpart in the receiving language. For example, Mausklick mouse click, Familienplanung family planning Luftsack airbag, Körpersprache body language or Seifenoper soap opera. Loan renditions apply to translations into German where only one part of an English term is translated literally and another is adapted freely, such as Wolkenkratzer skyscraper, Urknall big bang or Musikkiste juke-box. A semantic loan or loan meaning refers to anglicisms in which only the meaning of a word but not its form is transferred from the source language (SL) into the receptor language (RL) (Onysko, 2007, 19). The classical example of a loan meaning relates to the transfer of the meaning of the English verb realize onto its German counterpart 71

72 realisieren. Due to the English influence realizieren acquired the meaning to become aware of in addition to its traditional meaning to bring about, to concretize. A further category of borrowing which has been introduced is that of pseudo-loans (Yang, 1990, 12, and Onysko, 2007, 53). Pseudo-loans look like a word from the donor language, but it doesn t actually occur in that meaning in the donor language. We can distinguish the following three types of pseudo-anglicisms: lexical pseudo-anglicisms, i.e. compounds of English words that do not exist in English: Dressman male model, Showmaster quiz master, Powergirl energetic, powerful woman/girl, morphological pseudo-loans, which are shortened items in the recipient language: Pulli pullover és Profi professional, Happyend happy ending Gin Tonic gin and tonic. semantic pseudo-loans, the meaning of which is different from that of the English word: Handy mobile phone, Beamer projector. Besides the above mentioned types, Yang (1990, 138) and Onysko (2007: 59) also refer to hybrid anglicisms which are the combination of English borrowings with German elements. Some of them follow the English models, such as einchecken (check in), Krisenmanagement (crisis management) or Joggingsanzug (jogging suit). Others are characterised by their lack of an English compound, such as Heimtrainer (exercise bicycle), Managerkrankheit (stress disease) or Jeanshemd (denim shirt). In certain hybrid compounds a base noun of English origin is combined with a German noun, such as in Flugticket, Wirtschaftsboss, Staatsbudget, Forschungsteam, Sammelncontainer, Riesensteak or Unternehmensimage. Other types include the pattern English base noun + German noun, such as in Leasingsfirma, Computerspiel, Apartmenthaus, Fitnessraum, Internetzugang, Recyclinganlage and Webseite, etc. As shown by the above examples, in the majority of cases a noun is combined with another noun, but there are other types of combinations as well. In Billigangebot, Digitaluhr Großprojekt, Schnelltest, an adjective is combined with a noun, or in auftanken, einscannen, auschecken a prefix with a verb. As the above examples show, English borrowings are assimilated into the system of the German language at different levels and degrees. Loans which are unassimilated or only partially assimilated are usually identified as possessing features which are not present in German. These features which differentiate a loan from a German word may occur in the areas of orthography, phonology, morphology and semantics. 3. INTEGRATION OF ANGLICISMS INTO THE SYSTEM OF THE GERMAN LANGUAGE 3.1 Orthography As noted by Onysko (2007, 317), English words resist orthographical integration. Generally speaking, an anglicism conforms to German rules and is spelt according to its pronunciation, keeps its original English spelling or is a mixture of both. 72

73 Probably the most obvious indication of orthographic change is where all nouns which are anglicisms become capitalised when integrated into German (der Laptop, das Meeting, der Star, das Team and die Party, etc.). Other changes in spelling include the English letter c being changed to either k or a z in German. Some anglicisms can occur with either the English or German spelling e.g. Klub/Club, Kode/Code, Zigarette/Cigarette or Zertifikat/Certifikat. The voiceless post-alveolar fricative [S], which is <sh> in English, corresponds to <sch> in German, e.g Schock, but most loans keep the <sh>, e.g. Shop and Show. Especially in the case of verbs, it is also common for consonants to become doubled when integrated into German, e.g. babysit ~ babysitten, job ~ jobben, stop ~ stoppen or shop ~shoppen. Finally, in the case of compounds, many anglicisms either occur as two separate words, e.g. Hard Drug, Happy End, Joint Venture or as two words with a hyphen in between, e.g. CD-Player, , Late-Night-Show, Open-Air-Festival, or as one word, e.g. Airbag, Computervirus, Fitnesscenter. The spelling of some fluctuate between the latter and hyphenation: Beautyfarm ~ Beauty-Farm, Liveshow ~ Live-Show or Safetycar ~ Safety-Car, etc. (cf. Kunkel-Razum et al. 2006). 3.2 Phonology With phonology, the level of integration is determined by the degree of similarity and dissimilarity between the phonological systems of German and English. There are sounds in English which do not exist in German. As a result, the pronunciation of the anglicism is only partially the same as that of the English source word. For the labio-velar glide /w/ in English there is no equivalent sound in the German system. Where a word is written with a <w> is always pronounced as a /v/ sound (Windsurfing, Weekend, Webcam, World Wide Web and Workshop). Similarly, the English dental fricative /T/, such as in Thriller, Thing and Thanksgiving Day is also missing in German, and it will be replaced by /s/. German speakers will substitute the English diphthongs /ei/ and /œu/ by /e:/ and /o:/, respectively, for example in, Spray, Player, Trainer and Soul, Toast, Know-how. Another sound which doesn t exist in German is the open, central vowel /V/ as in jungle, but it is substituted by /a/ in words such as Brunch, Budget, Cup and Pub. Variation can happen not only in the segmental elements, but also in the suprasegmental elements of the pronunciation as in the examples of Musik, komfortabel and Interview, where stress can shift to the final syllable in German. 3.3 Morphology As Onysko s analysis of the German Der Spiegel (2007, 317) showed, English nominal borrowings predominate in German by far with 86,12% while adjectives and verbs amount to 5,64% and 5,49% respectively. 73

74 As the integration of nominal anglicisms in German is concerned, grammatical gender, plural formation and genitive case inflection constitute the most striking paradigms (cf. Yang, 1990, , Onysko 2007, ). Gender can be quite problematic because English, unlike German, does not distinguish grammatical gender. Therefore, an anglicism must be assigned one of the three German genders. The natural gender of a loan plays a decisive role. Male or female persons take the respective masculine or feminine gender, e.g. der Cowboy, der Gentleman, die Queen and die Lady, etc. Lexical similarity also influence gender assignment, i.e. the anglicism directly takes the gender of the German concept for the English term, for example, der Computer because of der Rechner. Other examples: der Airport (der Flughafen), das Business (das Geschäft), das Bike (das Fahrrad), die Economy (die Wirtschaft), die City (die Stadt), but das Team (die Mannschaft) or der Level (die Stufe, das Niveau), etc. In some anglicisms we can witness a hidden semantic analogy, which involves German compounds. The last part of a compound in German always decides which gender the whole compound takes. But sometimes because of semantic relations which are not obvious at first, a compound may take an unexpected gender. An example is die Holding (-company, -gesellschaft). As -gesellschaft in Holdinggesellschaft is feminine and -gesellschaft is semantically related to -company, Holdingcompany also takes the feminine gender. (cf. Yang. 1990: 154) Interestingly enough, words belonging to the same group all take the same gender, which is referred to by Yang (1990, 154) as group analogy. For example, Blues, Breakdance, Foxtrott, Jazz, New-Wave, One-Step, Quickstep, Rock n Roll and Swing all take the masculine gender because Tanz dance is also masculine. Furthermore, the number of syllables can also have an impact on gender. Single syllable loans in German are nearly always masculine, such as Boom, Boy, Chip, Clan, Clown, Club, Coat, Colt, Cup, Deal, Drink, Fan, Fight, Job, Shop, Start, Test, Trend and many more all take the masculine gender. Exceptions include Art, Band, Bar and Box, which are all feminine and Byte, Match and Girl are neuter. (Yang, 1990, 155) Finally, anglicisms which are created from combining a verb and a particle are either masculine or neuter, e.g. der Countdown and das Check-in. (Yang, 1990, 157) Onysko (2007, 174) also refers to gender variation that takes place in some anglicisms. For example der/das Cash, der/das Cyberspace, das/die , der/das Event, der/die/das Single. The different genders in der/die/das Single are due to the homonymic nature of the noun. Der Single refers to a person living a single life and masculine gender follows the associative pattern (generic person= masculine). The gender of die Single = a single record (die Schallplatte) und das Single= a tennis game (das Spiel) is due to lexical analogy. The other variants, i.e. der/das Cash, der/das Cyberspace, der/das Event and das/die represent true instances of gender variation since the different genders do not indicate separate lexical meanings. 74

75 Regular plurals in English are usually formed by adding an s or es. The majority of anglicisms in German also often form their plurals with s. It might be that s plural is borrowed together with the English base (Jobs, Teams, Shops, Homepages, s and Pubs). Interestingly enough, if an anglicism has a final y it takes s (Babys, Partys, Handys, Citys) without changing final y into i before es, (babies, parties). The second most dominant pattern of plural formation with anglicisms is the socalled zero-plural morphemization, e.g. Beamer, Dealer, Designer, Manager, Tester and User, etc, usually in the ones that end in er. Some anglicisms form their plural with e, such as Bosse, Boykotte and Sketche. In German the genitive is the only case marked on the stem of masculine and neuter nouns. Thus it is predictable that masculine and neuter anglicisms also regularly inflect for genitive in German (des Laptops, des Crashs). As the genitive is distinctly marked on the preceding determiner of a noun, stem inflection carries redundant information, and masculine and neuter anglicisms have a tendency to remain uninflected in the genitive or show a variation between an inflected and an uninflected genitive, such as des Internet or des Internets (cf. Onysko, 2007, 189). Verbs either take the en ending, such as jobben, downloaden, surfen, scannen, shoppen, starten, etc. or the suffix-ieren, which derives a variety of verbs from neoclassical roots, e.g. adaptieren to adapt, definieren to define, konzentrieren to concentrate and also occurs in boykottieren to boycott, bombardieren to bombard and campieren to camp, etc. When it comes to deriving different tenses, the anglicisms conform to the normal process necessary to form each individual tense in the German system. For example, participles derived from verbal anglicisms follow the regular pattern of circumfixation (ge- -(e)t), e.g. gejobbt, gechattet, gejoggt, getestet, i.e. they are always conjugated like weak regular verbs. Adjectives borrowed from English can present a few problems as not all of them necessarily take their respective German adjective endings. Most adjectives like smart, clever, cool, fair and postmodern take their appropriate endings, e.g. ein faires Angebot. However, the adjectives sexy, busy, happy, trendy, groggy, ladylike and live do not inflect because they mostly occur in predicative position. In fact, sexy doesn t take any endings even when used as an attributive adjective (ein sexy Kleid `a sexy dress ). A couple of frequently used predicative adjectives occur in comparative and superlative constructions in German (cooler, coolest, smarter, smartest) (cf. Onysko, 2007, 252). 3.4 Semantics As pointed out by Corr (2003, 46-7), anglicisms can either consist of words adapted from English which only have one meaning, e.g. (English) beefsteak (German) Beefsteak, or there can be anglicisms whose meaning is limited in number compared to the English source words. For example, feeder in English has the followings meanings: 1. feeder road, river is a smaller one that leads to a more important one; 2. a feeder airline and railways services connect major routes 3. a feeder school or team that provides students 75

76 or players for a larger one 4. a container that you fill with food for birds or animals. 5. supply pipe. However, Feeder in German means only supply pipe. Besides, sometimes the meaning of a word can become narrowed or more restricted, for example the word Der Swimming-pool refers to a pool inside or outside a building on a private property only, while in English a swimming pool means a hole in the ground that has been built and filled with water for people to swim in. In other cases anglicisms in German may have a different connotation from the original connotation they have in English, for example clever normally has a pejorative sense of being cunning in German. Der Airport and der Flughafen have the same denotative meaning, but according to native Germans intuitions, the former has the connotation of international, modern (cf. Yang, 1990, 56). 76 CONCLUSION As was evident from the above discussion, anglicisms represent a multifaceted phenomenon in German today. Due to globalization, we can find them in different fields of life ranging from technical and scientific terms through business to entertainment and sports. It can be stated that in the majority of cases the appearance of loan words is a mere necessity as a language needs new words for new things. However, it must also be mentioned that in some cases it seems to be a matter of fashion to use anglicisms. Of their functions, their precision, brevity, vividness, playfulness and variation of expression make them undoubtedly a preferred means of communication not just in German but in other languages as well. Anglicisms get integrated into the system of German at different levels. We can observe various degrees of assimilation ranging from partial to full assimilation in terms of their orthography, phonology, morphology and semantics. Assimilation is especially conspicuous in the morphology of nouns, first of all in assigning their grammatical gender, in the formation of their plural and the genitive case. As far as their word classes are concerned, nouns make up the majority of words of English origin in German. It is perhaps not surprising because the majority of borrowings refer to new inventions and concepts which first appeared in the English-speaking countries. I assume that of their types, pseudo anglicisms (Handy) and hybrid compounds (Business-Sprachkurs) are especially interesting phenomena. As evident from the above discussion, while these borrowings seem to have some impact on the morphology of German, its syntax remains more or less untouched by their influence. No doubt the integration of anglicisms into present-day German is most dominant in the field of lexis. REFERENCES 1. Carstensen, B., Busse, U., Schmude R. 1993, 1994, Anglizismen Wörterbuch: Der Einfluß des Englischen auf den deutschen Wortschatz nach Volume. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter.

77 2. Corr, R. Anglicisms in German Computing Terminology. Available at cs.tcd.ie/ courses/csll/corrr0203.pdf, Galinsky, Hans Stylistic Aspects of Linguistic Borrowings. A Stylistic and Comparative View of American Elements in Modern German. In: Amerikanismen der Deutschen Gegenwartsprache. Broder Carstensen & Hans Galinsky (eds.). 2nd edition Heidelberg: Winter. 4. Hilgendorf, S. K The impact of English in Germany. In: English Today 47, Vol 12, No Hilgendorf, S. K English in Germany: contact, spread and attitudes. In: World Englishes, Vol. 26, No Niebisch, D., Penning-Hiemstra, S., Specht, F., Bovermann, M., Reimann, M Schritte 1 international. Ismaning: Max Hueber Verlag,. 7. Onysko, Alexander Anglicisms in German. Borrowing, Lexical Productivity, and Written Codeswitching. Berlin-New York: Walter de Gruyter. 8. Yang, Wenliang Anglicizmen im Deutschen: am Beispiel des Nachrichtenmagazins Der Spiegel. Tübingen: Niemeyer. Santrauka Anglų kalbos įtaka šiuolaikinei vokiečių kalbai Éva Kovács Žodžio pasiskolinimas iš vienos kalbos į kitą natūralus reiškinys kalbos gyvenime. Šiandien mes galime būti skolinių antplūdžio iš anglų į vokiečių kalbą liudytojais. Tai pastebima ir kitose kalbose. Anglicizmų galima rasti beveik kiekvienoje gyvenimo srityje pradedant informatika, medicina, verslu, reklama, mada, ir baigiant sportu ir pramogomis. Taigi turbūt nenuostabu, kad net vokiečių vadovėliuose pradedantiesiems gausu šių skoliniu, pavyzdžiui, der Computer, -, die , -s, das Handy, -s, die Jeans, -, der Job -s, der Mausklick or joggen. Šio tyrimo tikslas yra išnagrinėti šiuolaikinėje vokiečių kalboje vartojamus anglicizmus dviem aspektais. Pirma, apžvelgti jų funkcinius aspektus ir vartojimo sritį. Antra, ištirti, kaip anglicizmai gali būti klasifikuojami ir kaip jie integruojami į vokiečių kalbos sistemą ortografiniu, fonologiniu, morfologiniu ir semantiniu požiūriu. 77

78 The Use of Technical Terms among Engineering Students at Lithuanian University of Agriculture Sonata Bistrickytė, Lina Inčiuraitė Radvilėnai Secondary School, 7 Radvilėnų Road, Kaunas, Lithuanian University of Agriculture, 11 Studentų St., Akademija, Kaunas, soniux2002@yahoo.com, linciuraite@yahoo.com Abstrct Nowadays even more technical terms are appearing, therefore, it is extremely significant not only to name them properly but also to make the necessary corrections. The authors of the article investigate the use of technical terms among the engineering students at Lithuanian University of Agriculture. The aim of the article is to determine how the students understand and define technical terms. The article also strives to determine the competence level of future engineers and aims to prove that it is necessary to make a comprehensive explanatory dictionary of technical terms in the Lithuanian language. The object of the present investigation is one-word technical terms. Moreover, the article advocates a sociolinguistic research embracing the fields of semantics and terminology. The results were obtained by distributing anonymous questionnaires to the first and second year students of engineering. The questionnaire, which included 25 technical terms, was filled in by 101 respondents. Certain terms are chosen because they are typical not only of the language of engineers, but also of the modern standard Lithuanian language. The investigation revealed that the majority of respondents tend to use the terms mechanism and machine, as well as gear, gadget, tool and device as completely synonymous because of the lack of linguistic competence. This is the reason why the respondents are not able to clarify the meaning of the words accurately. In addition, we can state that the term technology is a superordinate term to machine and mechanism, whereas other terms such as gear, gadget, tool and device are hyponyms of the terms machine and mechanism. As well, defining the terms the majority of respondents concentrate upon the function of a particular object. The analysis of technical terms shows that it is vitally important to add more detailed explanations of the terms in technical dictionaries because students are unable to highlight the differences among the terms. Key-words: technical terms, engineering students, semantics. At the beginning of the 20 th century the modern Lithuanian language became more standardized and this was the reason why a special need for scientific language and ter- 78

79 minology appeared. At that time several bilingual dictionaries of terms were published, for instance, engineering, mathematics, military science, etc. As Kazimieras Gaivenis assumes, some successful attempts were made in order to establish the principles and certain rules of the regulation and standardization of the terms in the Lithuanian language (Gaivenis, 2002, 143). Nowadays even more technical terms are appearing, therefore, it is extremely significant not only to name them properly but also to look through the present dictionaries and make all the necessary corrections to them. In Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, Jack Richards et al. explicitly state that terminology is defined as the special lexical items which occur in a particular discipline or subject matter (Richards et al., 1992, 376). Meanwhile, the editors of Oxford Advanced Learner s Dictionary provide a similar definition stating that terminology is the set of technical words or expressions used in a particular subject (Wehmeier et al., 2005, 1583). Hence, the article focuses on the use of technical terms among the engineering students at Lithuanian university of agriculture. The aim of the present investigation is to determine how the students understand and define technical terms. The article also strives to determine the competence level of future engineers and aims to prove that it is necessary to make a comprehensive explanatory dictionary of technical terms in the Lithuanian language. The object of the present investigation is one-word technical terms. Moreover, the article advocates a sociolinguistic research embracing the fields of semantics and terminology. The results were obtained by distributing anonymous questionnaires to the first and second year students of engineering. The questionnaire, which included 25 technical terms, was filled by 101 respondents. Certain terms are chosen because they are typical not only in the language of engineers, but also in the modern standard Lithuanian language. To start with technology (Lith. technika ), it was one of the first terms given to the students. The Lithuanian Dictionary (2008) describes the term technology as machines, mechanisms, gadgets, tools used in a particular field of activity. It is believed that the term technology derived from the Greek word techne and in Antiquity it meant trade and art (Gaivenis, 1994, 32). In the Lithuanian language, the term technology is extremely popular and acquires an ambiguous meaning because it is possible to speak about machinery or equipment as well as a particular way of doing something. In the English language, we can find two separate terms for describing these phenomena, i.e. technology and technique. In the Oxford Advanced Learner s Dictionary (2005, 1576), the term technology is described as a scientific knowledge used in practical ways in industry, for instance, in designing new machines as well as machinery or equipment designed using technology. With reference to the term technique, it is explained as a particular way of doing something, especially one in which you have to learn special skills as well as the skill with which somebody is able to do something practical (Oxford Advanced Learner s Dictionary, 2005, 1576). In this case, students were asked to describe the terms only from the technical point of view. Thus, consider the following diagram: 79

80 Technology Machine 53% Gadget 6% Tool 4% Device 7% Mechanism 15% Gear 15% Gadget Tool Device Mechanism Gear Machine Figure 1. Explanation of the term technology The majority of students define the term technology as the machines which make people work easier. Besides, the students use this term naming the particular mechanisms such as a tractor or a combine harvester. The students define technology as the gear used in agriculture. The minority of respondents describe technology as any gadget, tool and device used in agriculture and in daily life 6. As a result, the students mix the terms such as machine, gear, mechanism, device, tool and gadget. To start with the term machine (Lith. mašina), the authors of the Oxford Advanced Learner s Dictionary point out that machine is a piece of equipment with moving parts that is designed to do a particular job, whereas mechanism (Lith. mechanizmas) is a set of moving parts in a machine that performs a task (Oxford Advanced Learner s Dictionary, 2005, 953; 922). The term gear (Lith. įranga) shares common characteristics with the term mechanism because both terms define the part of a machine that does a particular job (MacMillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners, 2002, 588). Gadget (Lith. įtaisas) is a small tool or device that does something useful (ibid, 580). Moreover, a tool (Lith. įrankis) is a piece of equipment, usually one you hold in your hand that is designed to do a particular type of work (ibid, 1516). In accordance with Oxford Advanced Learner s Dictionary (2005, 418) the term device (Lith. prietaisas) is synonymous with a term tool because the dictionary defines device as an object or a piece of equipment that has been designed to do a particular job, meanwhile MacMillan s English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2002, 379) provides an explanation that relates the term device with the term machine. Even though the meaning of these terms is very similar, the students as the future specialists should not identify the terms mentioned above as completely synonymous. Such mistakes show the lack of semantic competence of the respondents. One should bear in mind that mechanism differs from machine because the latter consists not only of mechanisms, but also of launching, locking, control- 6 Students explanations concerning definitions of the terms are translated literally. 80

81 ling and other devices. Nevertheless, in some technological machines there are no mechanisms at all. The terms machine and mechanism are closely related to the terms gadget and device. Still, in the Lithuanian language, these terms are not systematized, standardized and have no precise definition. In our investigation we have noticed the cases of paradigmatic sense relations namely of hyponymy. In the Oxford Concise Dictionary of Linguistics, Peter Matthews maintains that hyponymy is a relation of inclusion between two lexical units (Matthews, 2007, 167). To put it in other words, a superordinate word includes the meaning of a more specific word, i.e. a hyponym. From the explanation above it is possible to draw a conclusion that term technology is a superordinate term, whereas machine and mechanism are its hyponyms. Meanwhile, machine and mechanism are superordinate terms themselves to other terms such as gear, gadget, tool and device. The following term signal (Lith. signalas) was given to the respondents as well. According to the Lithuanian Dictionary (2008) the term signal is understood as a sound or light sign used in order to spread knowledge or send a warning message. The following diagram illustrates a variety of definitions proposed by the students for this term: Signal Equipment 6% Wave 9% Message 7% Sign 9% Warning 17% Impulse 31% Sound 21% Impulse Sound Warning Sign Message Wave Equipment Figure 2. Explanation of the term signal The biggest part of the respondents define the term signal as the transmission of certain impulses used in various spheres of life or simply as the impulse which gives information. 21% of the students claim that signal is a sound, for instance, a warning sound or a sound transmitted by some sensors or gadgets. 17% of the respondents concentrate on the function of signal and they imply that this term is used as a warning (e.g. a siren). The minority of students adopt the view that signal stands for a sign, message, wave or even equipment. It is strange yet true that only 9% of the respondents provide correct answer and describe the term signal as any kind of sign. 81

82 Cable (Lith. kabelis) was the following term given to the students. The Oxford Advanced Learner s Dictionary (2005, 208) defines cable as a set of wires, covered in plastic or rubber that carries electricity, telephone signals. The Lithuanian Dictionary (2008) explicates the term cable as a thick telegraph, telephone or electric wire or steel rope. The respondents admit that cable is a cord through which electric current goes ; a cord by which energy is supplied ; a cord, protected by rubber and connecting two electric devices ; a wire beam having a thick insulation ; insulated wire ; gadget through which data floats are transmitted ; consists of wires and is used for transmission of electricity 7. Consider the following diagram: Cable Gadget 5% Thing 6% Wire beam 10% Cord 79% Cord Wire beam Gadget Thing Figure 3. Explanation of the term cable As the diagram illustrates, the majority of students correctly describe the term cable and provide accurate explanations. Meanwhile, cord (Lith. laidas) itself was the following term in the questionnaire. According to the Oxford Advanced Learner s Dictionary, cord is a strong thick string or thin rope used to carry an electric current or signal (Oxford Advanced Learner s Dictionary, 2005, 340). However, the respondents give various explanations for this term. They believe that a cord is a thing through which electric current is flowing ; a gadget through which electric current is flowing ; a thin, long, electricity conductive metal alloy, having insulation layer ; the means to join two electric devices. Consider the following diagram: 7 Students explanations concerning definitions of the terms are translated literally. 82

83 Cord Do not define 39% Device 2% Means 2% Material 3% Thing 3% Wire 10% Gadget 3% Cable 22% Conductor 3% Metal alloy 13% Material Thing Wire Gadget Cable Conductor Metal alloy Means Do not define Device Figure 4. Explanation of the term cord Even though the term cord is not difficult to explain the majority of students do not know how to define the term. 22% of the respondents describe the term cord as a cable, 13% as a metal alloy, and 10% as a wire. Moreover, only the minority of students believe that cord is a material, thing, gadget, and conductor or the means for doing something. According to the Oxford Dictionary (2005, 1751), wire is a piece of metal used to carry an electric current or signal. However, it differs from a cord because the latter consists of a few wires, whereas a wire is indivisible. In spite of the fact that cable, cord and wire fulfil the same function, they have distinctive characteristics mentioned above. The semantic analysis of the technical terms in the language of students of Lithuanian university of agriculture led to the following conclusions: 1. The term technology is a superordinate term to machine and mechanism, whereas other terms such as gear, gadget, tool and device are hyponyms of the terms machine and mechanism. 2. The majority of respondents tend to use the terms mechanism and machine, as well as gear, gadget, tool and device as completely synonymous because of the lack of linguistic competence. This is the reason why the respondents are not able to clarify the meaning of the word accurately. 3. Defining the terms the majority of respondents concentrate upon the function of a particular object. 4. The analysis of technical terms shows that it is vitally important to add more detailed explanations of the terms in technical dictionaries because students are unable to highlight the differences among the terms. 83

84 References 1. Gaivenis, K Terminologijos vagos. Vilnius: Vagos. 2. Gaivenis, K Lietuvių terminologija: teorijos ir tvarkybos metmenys. Vilnius: LKI leidykla. 3. Lithuanian Dictionary [online]. Available from: Accessed 11 March, MacMillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (ed.) Rundell, M., Fox, G. Oxford University Press. 5. Matthews, P. H Oxford Concise Dictionary of Linguistics. Oxford University Press. 6. Oxford Advanced Learner s Dictionary (ed.) Wehmeier, S. Oxford University Press. 7. Richards, J. Platt, J., Platt, H Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. Longman. Santrauka Techninių terminų vartojimas Lietuvos žemės ūkio universiteto inžinerijos studentų kalboje Sonata Bistrickytė, Lina Inčiuraitė Kasdien vis didėjant techninių terminų skaičiui darosi būtina juos peržiūrėti ir, esant reikalui, pataisyti. Autorės tyrinėja techninių terminų vartojimą Lietuvos Žemės Ūkio Universiteto studentų, būsimųjų inžinierių, kalboje. Tyrimo tikslas yra nustatyti, kaip respondentai supranta ir apibrėžia techninius terminus bei koks yra jų kalbinės kompetencijos lygis. Be to, stengiamasi įrodyti, kad būtina sudaryti platų aiškinamąjį techninių terminų žodyną lietuvių kalba. Tyrimo objektą sudaro vienažodžiai techniniai terminai. Rašant šį darbą buvo pasirinktas sociolingvistinis tyrimas, apimantis semantikos ir terminologijos sritis. Pateikus anonimines anketas, buvo apklaustas 101 respondentas. Anketą sudarė ne tik 25 specifiniai terminai, susiję su studentų specialybe, bet ir žodžiai vartojami bendrinėje lietuvių kalboje. Atlikus tyrimą paaiškėjo, kad dauguma respondentų yra linkę vartoti terminus mechanizmas ir mašina bei įrankis, prietaisas, įtaisas, įrenginys kaip visiškus sinonimus. Nesugebėjimas tiksliai apibrėžti žodžio reikšmę rodo respondentų lingvistinės kompetencijos stoką. Taip pat galima teigti, kad terminas technika yra hiperonimas terminams mašina ir mechanizmas, o pastarieji yra hiperonimai terminams įrankis, prietaisas, įtaisas, įrenginys. Įdomu tai, kad dauguma tyrime dalyvavusių studentų apibrėždami terminus pabrėžia objektų funkcijas. Tyrimo analizė atskleidžia būtinumą sudaryti platų aiškinamąjį techninių terminų žodyną lietuvių kalba, nes studentai nesugeba suvokti esminių terminų skirtumų. 84

85 II. TEKSTAS IR PRAGMATIKA / TEXT AND PRAGMATICS 85

86 86

87 Evaluative Metadiscourse in Linguistics Master s Theses in English L1 & L2 Abstract Nida Burneikaitė Vilnius University, Universiteto 3, Vilnius, Lithuania LT-01513, nida.burneikaite@flf.vu.lt The paper describes evaluative metadiscourse in the Master s Thesis genre in Linguistics and compares native (L1) and non-native (L2) English texts from British and Lithuanian universities (40 theses, over 500,000 words). It has been found that MA students use three types of evaluative metadiscourse: mitigation, emphatic and attitude markers. Overall, Lithuanian students use fewer evaluative markers than English students. Interestingly, in L2 texts, emphatics are the least common, whereas in L1 texts, emphatics are the most common markers. The results suggest that Lithuanian student writers have lower awareness of the value of their discourse and are less committed to their writing than English student writers. The paper also highlights institutional and individual variations in the use of evaluative metadiscourse in the MA thesis genre. Key words: metadiscourse, evaluation, mitigation, emphasis, attitude, MA thesis, native, non-native. INTRODUCTION In contemporary linguistics, written texts, just like spoken texts, are perceived as interactive and dialogic. Academic texts are no exception. Academic writers wish to persuade the readers to accept their newly created knowledge and therefore use various strategies to help the readers understand the message of the text. They seek to create interpersonal relations with their intended audience. The nature of interpersonal relations in written texts depends on the power status of the participants of interaction: the writer and the reader. In educational situations, e.g., at university level, academic texts are written by students, who are novice scholars, and intended to be read and evaluated by lecturers, who are expert scholars in the field. This difference in the power status determines what rhetorical strategies students use to establish appropriate relations with their readership. Metadiscourse is one such strategy. In this study, metadiscourse is defined as the language used to express the author s explicit awareness and management of the discourse-as-process, which includes awareness and management of the organization of the text, of the author s attitude towards the discourse process, and of the participants of the discourse process. The study 87

88 distinguishes three major categories of metadiscourse: text-organising, evaluative and participant-oriented 8. The focus of this paper is evaluative metadiscourse which includes mitigation markers (example 1), emphatic markers (example 2) and attitude markers (example 3). They will be defined in Section 1.2. (1) This paper s results tentatively suggest (2) The research clearly helped to define (3) The practical value of this paper In functional linguistics terms, metadiscourse is seen as performing the textual and interpersonal functions in Halliday s (1973) system and the emotive, conative and metalingual functions in Jakobson s (1960) system. 9 The Relation Between Evaluation and Metadiscourse Before we take a closer look at evaluative metadiscourse in student texts, let us clarify the relation between evaluation and metadiscourse. The concept of evaluation is rather broad and different terms are used to refer to different aspects of evaluation, such as appraisal, affect, appreciation, judgement (e.g., Martin, 2001); stance (e.g., Biber and Finegan, 1989); modality (Crismore and Farnsworth, 1989); key, reaction (Martin and White, 2005); subjectivity, attitude etc. This study draws on Hunston and Thomspson s (2001, 5) definition of evaluation as expression of the speaker or writer s attitude or stance towards, a viewpoint on, or feelings about the entities or propositions that he or she is talking about. For the purposes of the study, the object of evaluation has been narrowed down to entities and further interpreted as discourse entities. Propositions have been excluded as they are not a concern of met discourse. The relation between evaluation and metadisocurse has been debated since the early studies of metadiscourse. In this respect, two major approaches have been distinguished: integrative and non-integrative. Integrative models (Vande Kopple, 1985, Crismore et al, 1993, Hyland, 2005a) subsume the evaluative function under the category of metadiscourse, whereas non-integrative models (Mauranen, 1993, Ädel, 2003) exclude evaluation from metadiscourse. This study falls in-between the two extreme positions. It does not exclude evaluation altogether from the concept of metadiscourse; but it only includes those instances of evaluation that are clearly metadiscoursal, that is, they belong to the world of discourse. This is done to be consistent with the overall concept of metadiscourse used in the research: it is text-internal. A distinction between propositional and metadiscoursal evaluation is helpful here. Propositional evaluation shows the author s stance towards 8 Text-organising metadiscourse includes transitions (First...), endophoric markers (In this section ), discourse labels (My aim is to ) and code glosses (In other words ). Participant-oriented metadiscourse includes writer-oriented (I, my), inclusive (Let us consider...) and reader-oriented markers (See...). 9 Halliday s (1973) system includes ideational, interpersonal and textual functions. Jakobson s (1960) system includes emotive, conative, poetic, contact, metalingual and referential functions. 88

89 the subject matter and is text-external as it belongs to the real world; it performs the ideational function (examples 4 and 5). Metadiscoursal evaluation shows the author s stance towards the text and its structure, the unfolding discourse and its participants; it is text-internal as it belongs to the world of discourse; it performs the interpersonal function (examples 6 and 7). (4) to build rapport and plan interesting lessons (5) complained about the lack of interesting things to do (6) It is interesting to note that (7) our research might be of potential interest The Functions of Evaluative Metadiscourse Now that we have defined metadiscoursal evaluation, let us consider the rhetorical functions it performs in discourse. According to Hunston and Thompson (2001), evaluation performs three functions: (1) expressing the author s opinion and thus reflecting the value system of the author and the community; (2) constructing and maintaining relations between the author and the addressee; and (3) organising the discourse. Conrad and Biber (2001) also distinguish three functional types of evaluation (or stance): (1) commenting on propositional information; (2) conveying the speaker s attitudes, feelings or value judgments; and (3) describing the manner in which the information is presented. These functional frameworks are quite similar and can be both applied for the study of metadiscoursal evaluation: functions (2) and (3) in both models directly represent metadiscoursal evaluation and therefore are drawn upon in the study; function (1) in both models, however, seems to represent propositional evaluation (the good-bad parameter in Hunston and Thompson s (2001) terms and the epistemic stance in Conrad and Biber s (2001) terms) and is therefore not applicable here. The function of evaluative metadicourse then is defined as showing the writer s explicit awareness of the value of the ongoing discourse, and thus positioning the writer, engaging the reader and sustaining writer-reader interaction. Three categories have been identified in this research: metadiscoursal mitigation markers expressions that help the writers to diminish the value of the text and thus distance themselves from the text (example 8); metadiscoursal emphatic markers expressions that help the writers to emphasize the value of the text and thus show their commitment (example 9); metadiscoursal attitude markers expressions that help the writers to express their feelings and emotions towards the text and thus show their involvement (example 10). (8) The above analysis would seem to indicate (9) The following figure explicitly illustrates (10) It is important to mention The Rationale and Aim of the Study As has been suggested above, evaluative metadiscourse is a rhetorical strategy which helps the writer to create interpersonal relations in text. The use of evaluative markers in Master s theses shows to what extent student writers are aware of the value of their own 89

90 text and whether they draw the reader s attention to it. The use of evaluative markers also shows the perceived power relationship between the writer and the reader which is primarily determined by their different status in the academic discourse community. One may expect that novice writers will use a combination of various types of evaluative markers to either diminish or emphasize the value of their text and thus show their independence as researchers. Novice writers will use evaluative markers to make their writing more explicit, engage the reader and persuade the reader to accept their ideas. This paper aims at describing the use of evaluative metadiscourse in the Master s thesis genre in the discipline of Linguistics and also at comparing the patterns of evaluative metadiscourse in the native (L1) and interlanguage (L2) English texts written by students in British and Lithuanian universities. 1. MATERIALS 10 AND METHODS Two corpora have been compiled for the present research: Corpus L1 ( words) comprising 20 Master s theses written in English by native speaker students representing two universities; and Corpus L2 ( words) comprising 20 Master s theses written in English by non-native speaker (Lithuanian) students from two universities. The theses in both corpora were written by students of Linguistics between 2000 and 2007 and were all given high evaluations, which indicates that these texts were accepted as specimen of good writing by expert members of the discourse communities they were produced in. The study has followed the functional approach which involves identifying all potential candidates of evaluative expressions and then analyzing them (according to the criteria described in section 1.1) in order to distinguish metadiscoursal evaluation from propositional evaluation. Descriptive analysis, aimed at describing the Master s thesis genre, involves establishing the frequencies of various evaluative markers in the two corpora combined. Contrastive analysis, aimed at comparing L1 and L2 texts, focuses on the quantitative differences. Log Likelihood Calculator 11 has been used to compare the use of evaluative markers in the two corpora under discussion and to identify significant differences. The terms overuse and underuse refer to those instances where L2 texts show significant differences from L1 texts. 2. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This section will briefly present the quantitative results of the study (also see tables and figures at the end of the paper) and interpret them with reference to generic-disciplinary, cultural, institutional and individual factors. 10 I am deeply indebted to the universities, departments, students, colleagues and friends for helping me to collect data for this research 11 Log Likelihood Calculator is accessible at 90

91 2.1. Evaluative Metadicourse in the Master s Thesis Genre in Linguistics The descriptive analysis has shown (see Table 1) that the Master s thesis genre in Linguistics is characterized by a rather sparse use of evaluative markers in relation to other types of metadiscourse (cf. Burneikaitė, forthcoming): the frequency of evaluative markers is 8.79, whereas the frequency of text-organising markers is and participant-oriented markers Table 1. Metadiscourse in the Master s Thesis genre in Linguistics (normalised frequency, 10,000 words) Metadiscourse category Frequency text-organising participant-oriented evaluative (mitigation / emphatic / attitude markers) 8.79 (1.75 / 3.68 / 3.36) TOTAL metadiscourse The study shows that MA student writers use three subcategories of evaluative metadiscourse. The distribution of the subcategories (Table 1) has been found as follows: mitigation 1.75, emphatic 3.68, attitude 3.36 markers per 10,000 words. It may seem surprising that MA theses contain many more emphatics (example 11) than mitigation markers (example 12), which implies that MA students are highly committed to their text and want to engage the reader by using emphatic language. This, however, is characteristic of L1 texts only (also see 3.2). (11) A consideration of figure 6.5 does suggest that (12) This study can claim to have achieved It would be interesting to interpret the results of the analysis of the MA thesis genre in Linguistics with reference to other genres or disciplines, however, this is hardly possible at the moment as (to my knowledge) no research of this kind (i.e., with this particular methodological framework) is available. Current research of evaluation in academic discourse either investigates evaluation in its ideational function (Ryvitytė, 2008) or focuses on one aspect of evaluation only hedging/mitigation (Markkanen and Schroder, 1997, Salager-Meyer, 1997, Šeškauskienė, 2005, Stungienė, 2006, Šinkūnienė, 2008). Hyland and Tse s (2004) study of postgraduate theses does include all three subcategories of evaluation (hedges, boosters and attitude markers), however, their model is integrative, combining both metadiscoursal and propositional evaluation (see 1.1 above), therefore, comparison of this study, which focuses on metadiscoursal evaluation only, and Hyland and Tse s (2004) study would be questionable Linguistic-Cultural Variability Contrastive analysis of evaluative metadiscourse in native and interlanguage English MA theses has produced more interesting results than the descriptive analysis. We can clearly see (Table 2) that interlanguage (Lithuanian) English theses (L1 corpus) are characterized by far less frequent use (or underuse) of evaluative metadiscourse than 91

92 native English theses (L2 corpus): the log likelihood value is This is particularly evident in the case of emphatic markers, where the log likelihood value is Table 2. Evaluative metadiscourse in L2 texts relative to L1 texts Metadiscourse category Relative frequency Log Likelihood Value L1 corpus L2 corpus (overuse + / underuse - ) mitigation emphatic attitude TOTAL What are the reasons for the underuse of evaluative markers in L2 texts in relation to L1 texts? Is it the Lithuanian students general reluctance or inability to evaluate their own writing? Is it poor tradition of critical evaluation and reflection in the Lithuanian educational system? Is it the transfer of training which reflects the overall culturaleducational practice? How can we account for such a significant underuse ( 38.51) of emphatics in MA theses? Is it lack of confidence on behalf of Lithuanian student writers? Or is it just the neutral writer stance which Lithuanian students generally assume? To answer these questions, one would have to conduct further research into the peculiarities of British and Lithuanian academic discourse communities Departmental and Individual Writer Differences The study has revealed not only linguistic cultural differences between native and interlanguage texts, but also differences within the same culture and within the same university department. Figure 1 illustrates the use of evaluative metadiscourse in two Lithuanian universities: theses from University B show much more extensive use of evaluative metadiscourse, especially attitude markers, than theses from University A University A University B mitigation markers emphatic markers attitude markers Figure 1. Evaluative metadiscourse in MA theses from two Lithuanian universities (relative frequencies) Typical examples of attitude markers from University B texts are given below. These phrases have been used in nearly all the papers from the department. (13) The theoretical value of this paper/research (14) The practical value of this 92

93 This implies that the departmental requirements for Master thesis include the evaluative aspect, i.e., students are supposed to evaluate their own texts; or perhaps that students read papers form previous years and imitate the language patterns used in what they perceive as model texts; or both. In general, differences in texts by students from different universities in the same country could be explained by the differences in the departmental traditions of academic writing, including the explicit instruction provided by the guidebooks or the supervisors as well as the implicit acquisition of writing skills through reading. However, departmental factors are not the most important ones. Figure 2 illustrates the role of the individual writer style in academic writing: three students from the same department have used very different amount and types of evaluative metadiscourse in their texts. Student A used just two emphatic markers, Student B used one marker of each type, and Student C used six mitigation, six emphatic and fourteen attitude markers. Student C Student B Student A mitigation markers emphatic markers attitude markers Figure 2. Evaluative metadiscourse in MA theses of three students from the same department (mean frequencies; occurrences per MA thesis) Typical examples of attitude markers used by student C are as follows: (15) It is expedient to analyze/explain/discuss/dwell upon (16) It is interesting to notice/compare These and other individual and institutional variations in the use of evaluative metadiscourse patterns in the two corpora under investigation suggest that academic discourse at Master level is created not so much by adhering to the genre requirements or disciplinary conventions, but is greatly influenced by departmental traditions and the individual writer style. CONCLUSIONS The analysis of the evaluative metadiscourse in Linguistics Master s Theses from British and Lithuanian universities has shown that Master students use three functional subcategories of metadiscourse: mitigation, emphatic and attitude markers. Non-native (Lithuanian) students of English use fewer evaluative markers, in particular emphatics, than native English students, which suggests that they have lower awareness of the value of their discourse and are less committed to their writing than native students. Further research is necessary to test this initial claim. Larger corpora comprising theses from a variety of mother-tongue backgrounds (e.g., Latvian) and a variety of dis- 93

94 ciplines (e.g., business) would help to answer the question to what extent evaluative uses of metadiscourse are determined by the generic or disciplinary conventions and to what extent they are influenced by the cultural educational traditions of the discourse communities in which the texts are produced. Institutional factors, such as thesis supervision or academic writing instruction, as well as personality factors should be also researched by means of qualitative instruments to explore their role in the creation of the Master s thesis genre and the use of evaluative metalanguage in academic discourse. REFERENCES 1. Ädel, A The Use of Metadiscourse in Argumentative Texts by Advanced Learners and Native Speakers of English. Unpublished PhD Thesis. Goteborg University. 2. Biber, D. and E. Finegan Styles of stance in English: lexical and grammatical marking of evidentiality and affect. In: Text 9(1): Burneikaitė, N. (forthcoming). Metadiscourse in Linguistics Master s Theses in English L1 and L2. In: Kalbotyra 59(3). 4. Conrad, S. and D. Biber Adverbial marking of stance in speech and writing. In: S. Hunston and G. Thompson (eds.). Evaluation in Text: Authorial Stance and the Construction of Discourse. Oxford: OUP. 5. Crismore, A. and R. Farnsworth Mr. Darwin and his readers: Exploring interpersonal metadiscourse as a dimension of ethos. In: Rhetoric Review 8(1): Halliday, M. A. K Explorations in the Functions of Language. London: Edward Arnold. 7. Hunston, S. and G. Thompson Evaluation in Text: Authorial Stance and the Construction of Discourse. Oxford: OUP. 8. Hyland K. and P. Tse, Metadiscourse in Academic Writing: A Reappraisal. In: Applied Linguistics, 25(2), Hyland, K. 2005a. Metadiscourse. Exploring Interaction in Writing. London, New York: Continuum. 10. Hyland, K. 2005b. Stance and engagement: a model of interaction in academic discourse. In: Discourse Studies 7(2): Jakobson, R Closing statement: Linguistics and poetics. In: Sebeok T. (ed.). Style in Language.Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press. 12. Markkanen, R. and H. Schroder (eds.) Hedging and Discourse. Approaches to the Analysis of a Pragmatic Phenomenon in Academic Texts. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. 13. Martin, J.R Beyond exchange: Appraisal systems in English. In S.Hunston and G.Thompson (eds.). Evaluation in Text: Authorial Stance and the Construction of Discourse. Oxford: OUP. 14. Martin, J.R. and White, P.R.R The Language of evaluation. Appraisal in English. Palgrave, Macmillan. 15. Mauranen, A Cultural Differences in Academic Rhetoric: A textlinguistic study. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. 94

95 16. Ryvitytė, B Evaluation in Linguistic Book Reviews. Doctoral dissertation. Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla. 17. Salager-Meyer, F I think that perhaps you should: A study of hedges in written scientific discourse. IN: TESOL France Journal 2(2): Stungienė, A Mitigation in academic debates and conference papers in linguistics. In: Kalba ir kontekstai. Mokslo darbai, I tomas. Vilnius: VPU leidykla. P Šeškauskienė, I Hedging in English and Lithuanian academic discourse. In: Innovation and Tradition in Contemporary Language Studies: selected papers of the international conference at the University of Vilnius, Lithuania. Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla Vande Kopple, W. J Some exploratory discourse on metadiscourse. In: College Composition and Communication 36(1): Santrauka Vertinamasis metadiskursas kalbotyros magistro darbuose Nida Burneikaitė Straipsnyje apibūdinamas vertinamasis metadiskursas kalbotyros magistro darbuose bei lyginami gimtakalbių ir negimtakalbių (lietuvių) studentų magistro darbai anglų kalba (40 darbų, apie žodžių). Nustatyta, jog kalbotyros magistrantai vartoja trijų tipų vertinamojo metadiskurso žymenis: mitigacijos, emfazės ir požiūrio. Lietuvos universitetų studentai anglistai vartoja daug mažiau vertinamojo metadiskurso, ypač emfazės, nei Britanijos universitetų anglistai. Tai leidžia manyti, jog jie nėra linkę eksplicitiškai vertinti savo kuriamo diskurso bei yra mažiau užtikrinti savimi ir savo tekstu. Straipsnyje taip pat aptariami katedrų tradicijų bei studento asmenybės vaidmuo rašant mokslinį tekstą. 95

96 On the Diversity of the Modernist Literary Discourse Abstract Izolda Genienė Vilnius Pedagogical University, 39 Studentų St., LT-08106, Vilnius, The article explores some ontological and contextual features in the rise of modernism. As the movement of modernism in literature and arts is multidimensional, the given paper narrows its focus centering on aesthetic, stylistic and psychological grounds of literary discourse. The psychological essence and function of man in the world permeates the narrative in literature causing diversity, changes and revolution in language and style in the modernist literary discourse. Key words: modernist literary discourse, aesthetic and psychological grounds, changes in language and style. The period between the end of the nineteenth century and the World War Two was marked by new tendencies in all creative arts, breaking away from the rules and conventions established by realism. Modernist literature manifested itself in fresh ways of looking at man s position, function in the surrounding universe and in many experiments with language forms and styles. The aim of the present paper is to explore the diversity of some contextual underpinnings and some features of literary discourse in the modernist era. The literary critic and theoretician Gabriel Josipovici writes that at the turn of the twentieth century something has happened to all arts and that Proust, Joyce, Picasso, Klee, Schoenberg and Stravinsky, in spite of their obvious differences, had something in common (2003, 227). The theorist establishes links between decadent romanticism and modernism. What joins these trends is breaking free from tensions and direct communication of feelings without mediating and interpreting reason. Early modernism can be traced in the aesthetics of Baudlaire, Symbolists and various avanguardes. Peter Nicholls speaks about more complex inscription of ideologies in the modernist styles which frequently became their most ambitious vehicle. (1995, VII) In his view, modernism is the translation of politics into style, and the tensions it reflects between the social and the aesthetic. (1995, VII). It is interesting, writes Randall Stevenson, that as early as in 1908, at a time when it is unusual to find the word modernism, Scott-James stated the reasons for modern- 96

97 ist changes. The disposition for the change and transformation originated much earlier than Joyce s Ulysses (1922) and the other modernist fiction of that decade. The roots of transformation in modernist writing need to be considered as reaching back at least to the fiction of Henry James one of the novelists Scott-James refers to when be talks of the spirit of psychoanalysis and other authors, Joseph Conrad in particular, working around the turn of the century. The great majority of the present generation of novelists... have made psychology, conscious and deliberate psychology, their engrossing interest, and it is natural that such an interest should entail their finding the older technique too clumsy for their new purposes (Stevenson, 1998, 248). The French novelist Marcel Proust stated: It is only clumsy and erroneous form of perception which places everything in the object, when everything is really in the mind (Remembrances of The Things Past, ). Stevenson states, that many contemporary authors raising the question What is the reality in the novel? answered this question choosing, in Woolf s terms, to hold up the mirror of art not to reflect nature and the world without, but to illuminate the mind within, to portrait consciousness. Later commentators have usually considered these novelists attempts to place everything in the mind rather than in the object or in objective, realistic description as a central, defining characteristic of modernist writing... What would normally be thought of as reality is for Proust only a sort of rind a sunlit surface to be peeled away in order not to engage more deeply with the world, nor even with thoughts about it, but with the forms and pleasures of language. The most fascinating aspect lies not in what is represented, but in the means of its representation; not in the worlds envisaged, but in the art and language which set out to record it yet somehow form a separate, sufficient domain of their own.... Awareness of words and language of how they paint reality, inevitably forms a part of the increasing artistic self-consciousness of modernism (Stevenson, ). Modernism and modernist are therefore terms appropriately applied even if they may sound hybrid to the work of writers sharing the belief that modernizing forms and the reshaping or abandonment of tradition were necessary conditions of their art. This belief distinguishes modernist novelists from the many others who went on writing, through the early decades of the twentieth century, more or less within styles and conventions established in the later part of the nineteenth. The early modernist poetical and critical writing was represented by W. B. Yeats, T. S. Eliot ( ) and Ezra Pound ( ). The poet and critic Pound expressed his strong anti-miltonism and anti-victorianism. The critical assassination of Milton was in one sense a belated revenge of the Symbolist school against English Puritanism by striking at its most sacred poet, usually placed second only to Shakespeare in the English pantheon. He urges a return to the classical medieval tradition from Homer through Chaucer and Dante to Shakespeare (Baldick, ibid., 40-42). The new modernist discourse and criticism did not reject the formalist close scrutiny of the text. In poetry they had something more to seek than fine phrases and problems of metre. Close reading in literature had a new impetus: it was not a neutral body of thought and feeling into an integrated sensibility, one of key terms of criticism at that time. It was 97

98 casting doubts on the earlier critical canon, on Milton, Shelley and Tennyson. Less time was spent on summarizing the message and more on allusions and formal complexities of their work. Baldick states that the spatial method superseded the temporal one. (ibid.) We are inclined to think that modernists merged spatial and temporal shifts by applying a different modality in search of new angles of vision and new narrative forms. Traditional Shakespeare criticism also collapsed under the onslaught of a new school of interpretation. Motifs, themes and patterns became more important than the character and the plot. The new modernist practice of close reading challenged the truths of the old rhetorical canon. Eliot and Leavis valued the poetry of Shakespeare and the metaphysical poets (Donne and others) for their impersonal objectivity, the urbane maturity of wit and the fusion of thought and feeling. Critics recognized the difficulties of modern writing that responded to the ills of contemporary civilization. Eliot himself suggested that the modern artist needed to be allusive and difficult because the twentieth century society was so complex and various, and he tended to link the artist s problems with the disintegration of social cohesion (ibid., 68). The psychological issues were grounded on the wandering character of human psyche. These were the aesthetic and critical mainstays of complex modernist literature after The play of images in the modernist poetry as, for example, in Yeats s ( ) Byzantium, and Sailing to Byzantium became a symbol of art and artifice as opposed to the natural world. The Byzantium poems show Yeats trying to escape from the turbulence of life to the calm eternity of art. The poem The Lake Isle of Innisfree celebrates the virtual haven of a small Irish isle with a clay and wattle cabin to which the speaker would like to retreat (I quote here only the first and the third stanzas): 98 I will arise and go now, and go to Innisfree, And small cabin built there of clay and wattles made; Nine bean-rows will I have there, a hive for the honeybee, And live alone in the bee-loud glade. The third stanza contrasts the romantic idyll and grey reality of the city: I will arise and go now, for always night and day I hear lake water lapping with low sounds by the shore While I stand on the roadway, or on the pavements grey, I hear it in the deep heart s core. As was often the case in modernist poetry, Yeats s verses combine the colloquial and formal diction as well as symbolism with a metaphorical and epigrammatic element. Yeats remains one of the greatest poets in English literature. In his esoteric, symbolicmetaphorical musings he responded to the great contemporary modernist poet-critic Ezra Pound. The poets share some affinities: adherence to symbolism, the desire to revive the historical or literary part, and to combine formal and colloquial language. Pound s motto

99 was Poetry must be as well written as prose (by which he meant the prose of Flaubert and Joyce). It must depart in no way from speech save by a heightened intensity (i.e. simplicity) (CLHUS, 1998, 952) Pound did not disassociate literary writing from criticism. Speaking in postmodernist terms he saw them as a shared continuum of textuality. In spite of his great admiration for Yeats (Pound had been Yeats s secretary), Pound understood that he had to cast off this influence. He strove for clarity, precision, and direct conversational diction, and was delighted when he saw that Yeats also headed in that direction. Intertextual relationships are also found in Pound s Canto I where Odysseus s descent into the underworld combines the narrative style of a Rennaissance translation of Ulysses with the style of Anglo-Saxon epic verse. Here is an extract: And then went down to the ship, Set keel to the breakers, forth on the godly sea and We set up mast and sail on that swart ship, Bore sheep aboard her, and our bodies also Heavy with weeping... Looking for new sensibilities modernist criticism went hand-in-hand with the changing literary discourse. Experimenting with language and breaking the rules of traditional versification and narrative marked a new aesthetic literary movement. A prominent example is the creation of the American poet E. E. Cummings (who was also a painter). Cummings sought to give the reader an intellectual task: to overcome challenges and thus experience pleasure in reading poetry. The below presented poem has a jumbled form and is open to different interpretations. i m asking you dear to what else could a no but it doesn t of course but you don t seem to realize I can t make its clearer war just isn t what we imagine but please for gods O what the hell yea it s true that was me but that isn t me can t you see now no not any Christ but you must because i am dead 99

100 The literary theorist H. Gross treats it as an anti-war poem in which the triangular form, with a peak in the middle with the letter O, is represented by syntactical constructions of aposiopesis (a break in the narrative, as if unwilling to proceed) which is not marked by punctuation. However, the meaning is clear: the soldier with the deadly wound tries to explain to his beloved that to be in the war is quite different from how it is imagined. Gross interprets the poem in the following way: the soldier renders the growing intensity of his feelings in the increasing number of syllables (from one to nine) in each line, as if he were explaining an arithmetic sum to a child who has difficulties in understanding it. I. V. Arnold proposes an additional interpretation: the poem tries to represent realistically the soldier s stream of consciousness his main aim is to explain that he was and now he is no more because he is already dead... (1981, ) The rhythm the poem produces is not soronous but visual. The important point is that the outer image of the poem is not only an original play of form but that the form itself has substantial significance. This example places ordinary speech in an extraordinary form and withholds its subject. Thus its reading invites multiple interpretations. It is difficult to determine absolutely how many voices are captured in the lines. In fiction, the features of modernist literary discourse were, too, represented by linguistic deviations, violations, and breaking of the old cohesive sentence sequences, thus signalling new thinking, rejection of gradual linear realistic description and attempting to sound deeper the human consciousness. The stream of consciousness technique used by James Joyce ( ) is often presented as the classical example. Joyce s Ulysses (1922) is a travesty of the heroic epic, a sneer and damnation of numeric modernity. Joyce was strongly influenced by Freud, who had stated that man s conscious mind is of lesser importance than the subconscious mind, and it is in the subconscious that the essence of personal being is revealed. In Ulysses, the one day describes in the 700 pages-long novel is uneventful the dailies day possible in the life of Leopold Bloom, an advertising agent, a man in the street, stripped to the naked ugliness of his longings and appetites, and Stephen Devalues, a philologist, a poet and a teacher. The description of their lives consists of a dreary enumeration of utterly insignificant actions, words, and thoughts. Yet beneath this surface is despair at man s degradation and cynical lack of belief in anything fine and noble. The book is purposefully chaotic and obscure, metaphorically expressing hideous nothingness. Here are several extracts from the book. Tormented by his own cruelty to his late mother Stephen is observing the sea (Arnold and Diakonova, 1967: 48-50). The incoherent sentences represent the workings and flow of Stephen s subconscious: 100 In long lassoes from the Cock lake the water flowed full covering the green-golden lagoons of sand, rising, flowing. My ashplant will float away. I shall wait. No, they will pass on, passing chafing against the low rocks, swirling, passing. Better get this job over quick. Listen: a fourworded wavespeech: seesoo, hrss, rsseeiss, ooos. Vehement breath of waters amid seasnakes, rearing horses, rocks. In cups of rock it slops: flop, slop, slap: bounded in barrels. And spent, its speech ceases. It flows purling, widely flowing, floating foampool flower unfurling.

101 The rich language of the paragraph is full of onomatopoeia, alliteration, and neologisms to render the wave speech. The sea is chafing, swirling, passing, rising, flowing, floating foampool, a flower unfurling. The water slops: flop, slop, slap. Stephen transforms the sounds rendering the wave speech of waters: seesoo, hrrr, rseeis ooos. (ibid.) The first sentence of the extract could be attributed to the narrator s voice, but the remaining utterances belong to the inner impressions of Stephen s subconscious in his perception of the sea. In modernist literary discourse the sense of language acquires a separate, independent, aesthetuc existence. It is worth tracing how it appears in wider patterns of thought in different writers literary discourse. Stevenson compares the complexities and features of Joyce s writing with the principles and aims of Henry Jame s representation of characters and the world (1998: 171). The critic writes that the nature, problems and pleasures of language are issues which continue to figure especially prominently in Joyce s writing after a Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, in the sustained parody of Ulysses first of all. In one way this parody operates at the level of character and story. Joyce s reworking of Homer casting Bloom as an unlikely modern Odysseus, heroically journeying not through the aftermath of the Trojan War but through a single Dublin day. But the parody of Ulysses concentrates principally on language with some style of literature, journalism, ordinary speech or officialdom appropriated, mocked and exaggerated in many of its chapters.... Ulysses in this way departs decisively from the habits of the nineteenth century novel, whose language rarely varies greatly in style from start to finish, and usually provides as far as possible a transparent medium through which the world of fiction is observed by the reader. Joyce s narrative style had wide influence on the rise of the modernist narrative technique of free indirect discourse which began to spread around the turn of the century. It can be compared with Woolf s prose which is also representative of this new technique. Her novels (Mrs. Dalloway, To the Lighthouse and other novels) had a great impact on writers throughout the twentieth century. Wandering thoughts, fragmentary impulses, the cinematic type of narration, mixing of prospection and retrospection (foreshadowing and flashbacks, i.e. mixing of the time lines), transitivity and changeability of the point of view from character to character, resulted in probing deeper into the psychological processes of human mind. This can be illustrated by an extract from Woolf s novel To the Lighthouse. The scene is set in the Ramseys summer house at a dinner with their guests. Even in a short extract of five sentences we can observe variability of represented speech and thought: Mr. Bankers s direct speech (1), Mr. Tansley s direct thought (2) and the complicated perspectives of thought (3-4) balancing between Lily s indirect thoughts and those of the focalizing narrator (more on free indefinite discourse speech and thought see in Part Two, p. 130): (1) It s odd that one scarcely gets anything worth having by post, yet one always wants one s letters, said Mr. Bankes. (2) What damned rot they talk, thought Charles Tansley (3-4), laying down his spoon precisely in the middle of his plate, which he had swept clean, as if Lily thought (he sat opposite to her with his back to the window precisely in the middle of view), he were determined to make sure of his meals. Everything about 101

102 him had that meagle fixity, that bare unloveliness. But nevertheless, the fact remained, it was almost impossible to dislike any one if one looked at them. She liked his eyes; they were blue, deep set, frightening. The textual close reading and the structural anatomy of utterances testify to features of modernist narrative discourse getting away from the mimetic and realistic delineation of the narrator s control of the linear orchestration (arrangement) of what the characters say, think or do. Modernist forms of discourse liberate the characters from the narrator s tyranny of pulling the puppet strings of their participation thus allowing unexpected psychological manoeuvres in their minds. References 1. Arnold, I. V Three Centuries of English Prose. Moscow. 2. Arnold, I. V Стилистика сoвременного англисково языка. Ленинград. 3. Arnold and Diakonova Three Centuries of English Prose. Leningrad. 4. Baldick, Ch. Criticism and Literary Theory to the Present. London and New York: Longman. 5. CLHUS Literary History of the United States. Columbia University Press. 6. Genienė, I Literature, Language, Criticism: Interface Studies. Vilnius: Pedagogical University Publishing. 7. Joyce, J Ulysses. Paris. 8. Stevenson, R Modernist Fiction. London and New York: Longman. 9. Pound, E Lustra. Vilnius: Vaga. 10. Ellmann, R. and O Clear, R The Norton Anthology of Modern Poetry. New York and London: w.w. Norton Company. 11. Woolf, V To the Lighthouse. Wordsnorth Editions Ltd. 12. Yeats, W. B Selected Poetry. London. 13. Nicholls, P Modernism. A Literary Guide. University of California Press. 14. Carey, I The Intellectuals and the Masses. Pride and Prejudice among the Literary Intelligentsia. London: Faber and Faber. Santrauka Modernistinio, literatūrinio diskurso įvairovė Izolda Genienė Straipsnyje nagrinėjamos kai kurios modernizmo atsiradimo ontologinės ir kontekstinės ypatybės. Modernizmo judėjimas yra daugiaplanis, bet šiame darbe tyrimo objektas kreipiamas tik į estetines, stilistines ir psichologines literatūrinio diskurso ypatybės. Psichologinės žmogaus esaties ir funkcijų savybės literatūriniame diskurse sąlygoja revoliucinę literatūros diskurso kaitą. 102

103 Interactive Knowledge in Dialogue Abstract Ágnes Herczeg-Deli Eszterházy Károly College, Eger, 1 Eszterházy Sq., Hungary agnes@ektf.hu In verbal communication the social and the cognitive functions of language collaborate in the course of the production and in the interpretation as two online processes. The aim of the paper is to discover how certain cognitive operations advance the interpersonality of the discourse. It will be illustrated how knowledge as part of the context becomes interactive in dialogue, more specifically, how initiating discourse utterances become elicitative when the linguistic form does not necessarily signal that function. The approach is cognitive pragmatic, based on the concepts of Relevance Theory. The paper demonstrates that familiarity with schemata contribute to the interaction of knowledge, and that metaphorization, a process characteristic of the natural functions of language, also occurs in natural dialogues. The data come from a specific genre; the examples are extracts from English talk radio shows and from natural conversations in phone-in programmes on BBC Radio. Key-words: interpretation, relevance, context, interactive knowledge, schemata in dialogue, metaphor in conversation INTRODUCTION It is essential that for the exploration of discourse some non-linguistic considerations should also be introduced in the analysis. Pragmatics literature reveals that sentence structure induces only a fragment of meaning and that in the interpretation of discourse the context plays a crucial role. From its multiple descriptions proposed in linguistic literature it is clear that context is a very complex issue. What is for sure is that it both restricts and specifies, so the question arises how it does what it does. In the nineteen sixties and seventies, and even in the eighties most of pragmatics literature was concerned with the production side of communication, i.e. with the speaker s role see Grice (1975), e.g. who introduces certain principles of co-operative behaviour -, and much less was said about how important the other participant s (i.e. the hearer s) perspective in communication is. For the investigation of relatedness in discourse Sperber and Wilson (1986) work out a theory which provides a framework for a cognitive understanding of discourse, and a new approach to the interpretation process, i.e. to the hearer s role, and to the context. 103

104 The background of this paper is Sperber and Wilson s principles of Relevance Theory, which can be used as a starting point to find some pragmatic explanation for the relatedness of two participant s utterances. In this paper it will be such utterances that are not explicit questions and answers. My assumption is that in such an enterprise knowledge of reality - which, I suppose, works as an engine of conversation as well as some cognitive processes going on in the interaction of the participants have to be discussed. Behind the verbal manifestations of the communicative goals I will search for the presence of mutually familiar schemata. When working with the data I was concerned with local interpretation processes. For the research I used recordings and transcriptions of some talk radio shows and phone-in programmes on BBC Radio ranging from more formal face-to-face interviews to rather informal phone-in talk. Despite the fact that the data come from a specific genre, I suggest that most of the observations can be proved valid for other types of discourse, too. 1. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND In their book, Sperber & Wilson (1986) draw a distinction between the modes of coding - decoding and inferences, as two complementary processes of interpretation. For their Relevance Theory they set out from Grice s account of implicatures and inferences (Grice, 1975) as complementary to decoding. In their discussion of mutual manifestness Sperber and Wilson (1986, 27) are mainly concerned with the inferential stage of comprehension. They propose that communication is successful not when hearers recognise the linguistic meaning of the utterance, but when they infer the speaker s meaning from it (Sperber & Wilson, 1986, 23). In this view the decoding phase of utterance interpretation provides input to an inferential phase in which a linguistically encoded logical form is contextually enriched and used to construct a hypothesis about the speaker s informative intention (Wilson and Sperber, 1993, 1). Sperber & Wilson (1986) criticize Grice (1975) pointing out that Grice leaves his maxim of relevance one of the four maxims of co-operative behaviour in conversation besides truthfulness, informativeness and clarity undefined and rather vague. They undertake the elaboration of the concept as they interpret it and use it for the explanation of relatedness in discourse. They reject Grice s argumentation that co-operation is essential in communication, and propose that all the pragmatic factors and processes that operate in communication can be explicated within the cognitive framework of relevance (see Sperber & Wilson 1986, 1995, 2002, Smith & Wilson, 1992, 2), which is a phenomenon fundamental to cognititon. Relevance relations in comprehension should be understood as relations between the content of an utterance and its context. The relevance theoretic account considers the context a dynamic construct which also comprises some cognitive processes going on in the communication situation. The relevance of an utterance is defined in terms 104

105 of its contextual effect which costs some processing effort. Sperber and Wilson claim that newly presented information is relevant to the hearer when its processing in a context of available assumptions yields a POSITIVE COGNITIVE EFFECT (2002, 251). The greater the contextual effect, the greater the relevance, and the less effort is necessary for the interpretation. One type of cognitive effect is a CONTEXTUAL IM- PLICATION, other types of it include the strengthening, revision or abandonment of available assumptions (ibid.). Another central concept in Relevance Theory is context selection. Sperber and Wilson emphasize it that a context is a psychological construct, a subset of the hearer s assumptions about the world (ibid., 15). It is from a variety of possible interpretations from which the participants make a selection. This variety also involves shared assumptions about the world between the speaker and hearer (cf. Sperber & Wilson 1986, 14-7). Sperber & Wilson claim that the context constitutes not only the immediate physical environment or the immediately preceding utterances, but expectations about the future, scientific hypotheses or religious beliefs, anecdotal memories, general cultural assumptions, beliefs about the mental state of the speaker, may all play a role in interpretation, too (1986, 14-5). In this view in the interpretation process of each item of new information many different sets of assumptions from diverse sources (long-term memory, short-term memory, perception) might be selected as context (1986, 138). Fetzer (2004, 226) also observes that in cognitive pragmatics communication and context are no longer conceived of as external phenomena, but rather as internal ones. As for the knowledge necessary for communication, many linguists argue that some common ground or joint knowledge should be established between the participants (cf. Clark 1996, 93, e.g.). Sperber & Wilson reject this idea, (1986, 15-21, 45), and instead they argue for continuous context selection in comprehension which is controlled by the individual s (total) cognitive environment (ibid., 39, 45-6). In view of Relevance Theory this should mean that listeners are assumed to be able to work out explicit and implicit as well as metaphorical meanings on the basis of the knowledge available for them in their minds, in the context, and with the help of their skills and capacities. My understanding of the context in view of Relevance Theory can be summarized in the motto: The context is in the mind and the mind is in the context. The following figure is meant to schematize the processes of production and interpretation in discourse and their relatedness with the context. 105

106 SPEAKER A: need motivation intended meaning message choice of linguistic form CONTEXT broader circumstances (code, culture) immediate circumstances: - physical (location) - social (time, co-participants) the participant s goals, will, KNOWLEDGE (real knowledge and lack of knowledge) beliefs, assumptions, expectations, abilities, information pool linguistic environment (preceding discourse) SPEAKER B INTERPRETATION SELECTION Observing relevance DECODING INFERENCE-MAKING Interpreted meaning RESPONSE 106 Figure 1. Production and interpretation in dialogue The term KNOWLEDGE in the context is used as an umbrella term in Figure 1, which stands both for real knowledge and lack of knowledge. I take it for granted that lack of knowledge is just as generative a factor in a context as real knowledge and I assume that context also comprises the unknown, the unspecific or underspecific as one of its components, as well a participant s uncertainty. This component I label the U-factor, while to real knowledge I refer with the term K-factor (cf. Deli, 2004, Deli, 2006). The productivity of knowledge and beliefs in discourse processes was pointed out well before Sperber & Wilson s Relevance Theory. Van Dijk (1977, 178) argued for RULES of deductive and inductive inference in the process of deriving new information from old information, and for context changing from moment to moment (1977, 191). He also assumes that our conventional knowledge about the structure of worlds and of particular states of affairs or courses of events is a determining factor of the cognitive condition of meaning. There are frames i.e. conceptual structures in semantic memory which represent a part of our knowledge of the world and also function as an organizational principle relating a number of concepts. Frames also include potential propositions

107 determining the possible ordering of facts, which can be arranged along such relations as the cause-consequenc, the general particular or the whole part lines, among others (ibid., 99, cf. also van Dijk 1981, 5, 19, ). To refer to the structure of knowledge in cognitive sciences several other terms have been introduced, such as schema, scenario, script, knowledge structure, mental model, to mention only a few. I apply the term schemata here, which, according to Cook (1989, 73) are data structures, representing stereotypical patterns, which we retrieve from memory and employ in our understanding of discourse. Stubbs (2001, 443) notes that communication would be impossible without the assumptions which are embodied in schemata, and adds that what is said is merely a trigger: a linguistic fragment which allows hearers to infer a schema. He also refers to Levinson (2000, 27-30) saying that it is not a mere convenience that we do not need to say explicitly what we mean, but a necessary characteristic of a functioning communication system. I assume that schemata like the hypothetical real, the general particular or the problem - solution, for example - see also Winter s the basic text structures (1994) and van Dijk (1981, 5, 19, ) - are essential types of cognitive patterns controlling communication in dialogues. 2. DIALOGUE IN A COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE As theoretical linguists don t typically use a corpus they usually provide a limited number of examples to illustrate their subjects, and the examples do not necessarily come from natural discourse. In the following I will demonstrate what cognitive patterns can be detected in dialogue. Due to their complexity circumstances and relations can hardly be taxonomized, therefore I will not endeavour to give an exhaustive illustration of how the cognitive environment operates in discourse, but I want to show that the KNOWLEDGE real knowledge and lack of knowledge of the participants becomes an interactive factor of dialogue Hypotheses, assumptions in dialogue In conversation speakers frequently make assumptions and hypotheses about the surrounding world on the basis of their experiences. In a cognitive sense, the domain of a hypothesis is the unreal, the unknown and/or the uncertain. When in conversation a speaker makes a hypothetical statement in an initiating move it usually means making it manifest that she may know the truth correctly or she may be wrong, her proposition may or may not be true. By offering the uncertain or possibly unreal the speaker offers the proposition for consideration: 1) A: Judith, I take it that, broadly speaking, women get paid between two thirds and three quarters of the income of their male counterparts. B: Yes, I m afraid, that s true. The addressee in extract 1) interprets the hypothesis as an elicitation requiring a response. The participants relationship to reality in the current context can be described with the following two-component schema: 107

108 Hypothetical Confirmation as Real The Hypothetical member of the relation stands for the first speaker s assumption, the Real one for the second speaker s knowledge. In the first speaker s utterance the effect of the U-factor that is manifest, while in her addressee s contribution the presence of the K- factor is obvious. The former is verbally signalled by I take it, the latter, by that strue. In the following conversation the hostess and her guest are talking about an imaginary situation: 2) A1: Now, supposing that overnight we got contract compliance, B: Yes ~A1: and supposing overnight it was as effective as you pray it E 1 would be, the inflationary effects would be catastrophic, wouldn t they? B1: Well I I don t think we d actually get it overnight, I mean that s the first point. But [ə] A2: So you accept that it probably is for the good of the nation that we don t get it overnight E 2 B2: No, no, what I would want to see happen is to create the right legal framework [ə] but then you would find the gradual effect if it, it would be that.. In this extract the first speaker s assumption (A1, ~A1) in the first exchange (E1) is rejected by the addressee (B1). Then a new hypothesis is set up by the first speaker in the following exchange (E2), which is rejected again by her partner in turn B2. Negative statements are typically followed by some explanation, i.e. some reason, and this is what happens here, too. So the extract shows the following complex schema: Hypothesis Rejection new Hypothesis Rejection +Reason new Hypothesis Reason is a commonly occurring component of schemata. It can also appear without a Rejection, which makes the schema look deficient. In extract 3) below speaker B interprets his partner s hypothesis as an elicitation for reasons, and he does not explicitly express his confirmation of the hypothesis, he immediately provides his reason: 3) A: So, from a sheer protectionist point of view you fear a unification. B: I feel the present war is a trade war, it s not a war with with [œ] weapons like we used to have # in history. The incomplete schema is the following: Hypothetical (ø Confirmation) Reason 2.2. The Problem Response / Solution Schema The macro-structure INTRODUCTION PROBLEM SOLUTION CONCLU- SION, which van Dijk (1977, 155) refers to as a well-known type of structure used in scientific discourse is also referred to by Winter (1986, 1992, 1994) and Hoey (1983, 108

109 1994) as Problem and Response or Solution, a semantic pattern commonly occurring in texts. I have found that the Problem Response schema is not uncommon in conversations either. Here is an example: 4) A: The trouble is that the only way of coming back at you is by coming back at you with the very # stick # which is your stick, really, the stick of the Law. B: We have rules which govern the way that we conduct our affairs and also the affairs of our clients. # And if we breach any of those particular rules then we are liable to be disciplined. By the Law Society. The host of the show, A introduces a Problem. This meaning is signalled lexically by the noun phrase the trouble. The guest, speaker B explains what the Response is to this Problem we have rules-, which, at the same time seems to be a Solution. Behind the exchange the following schema can be discovered: Problem Response = Solution 2.3. The Unspecific Specific Schema In discourse the specification of unspecificness is not uncommon; it occurs in the Unspecific Specific schema, occasionally across speaking turns. 5) A: I gather you had problems getting # getting back into the country last night. B: We got back fairly late nd got held up for an hour at Heathrow waiting for our luggage because some of the security people # [əm] # thought that the Archbishop s cross # [wə] was a machine gun. So that kept us waiting. The general noun problem used by the first speaker gives his utterance some elicitative force; his guest interprets the assumed information you had problems getting back into the country last night as a request for details. The Unspecific Specific schema, here is encapsulated in a Hypothetical Real schema: A: HYPOTHETICAL UNSPECIFIC B: REAL SPECIFIC Figure 2. Combined schemata 3. METAPHORIZATION AND DIALOGUE Lakoff and Johnson (1980) take a cognitive approach to metaphors by introducing the idea of mapping relations between distinct cognitive domains. They define metaphorical concepts in non-metaphorical concepts described with the equation X is Y. Although Lakoff and Turner (1989) referred to in Givón, 2005, 75 propose that conceptual metaphors are stable, conventionalized, culturally entrenched and largely human-universal and further, that they are automatically activated during on-line metaphoric use, in cognitive linguistic literature the overwhelming argumentation for metaphoric be- 109

110 haviour is almost exclusively restricted to lists of conceptual metaphors. Little has been said about how metaphorical behaviour can be traced in discourse. In Herczeg-Deli (2008) I make a difference between explicit metaphors and implicit metaphors. The latter are part of the language users cognitive environment, and natural language examples show that implicit metaphors are activated by the local context through lexical signals (Herczeg-Deli, 2008, ). The conversational extract below provides evidence of how metaphorical thinking becomes interactive in the course of a conversation and how this process is signalled lexically. The two men in the dialogue are talking about African violets in a phone-in radio programme: 6) A1: Indeed, you haven t got a green one. B1: Now coming up. It s coming up. It s the centennial year of the African violet. Which is And it would be lovely to have a yellow African violet. A2: Is that why you are launching this campaign? B2: Well, I m [ə] # pushing the boat out. I m offering one thousand five hundred pounds for a yellow African violet. The first speaker in his second turn (A2) uses the verb launch in the figurative sense. The idiomatic expression launch a campaign recalls the experience of sailing to the second speaker and activates the expression push the boat out, which he uses as an expression of agreement. This reference to the physical action of launching triggers a conceptual metaphor: A CAMPAIGN IS SAILING. This conceptual metaphor arches over the exchange A2 B2 and works as a milestone of relevance. References 1. Clark H. H Using Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2. Cook, G Discourse. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 3. Deli, Á Interpersonality and Textuality in Discourse. Antal, É., Cs. Czeglédi. (eds) Eger Journal of English Studies Volume IV. P Eger: EKF Líceum Kiadó. 4. Deli, Á Diskurzusfolyamatok konverzációs váltásokban, amikor a válaszváró megnyilatkozás kijelentés-formájú. Alkalmazott Nyelvtudomány pp. Veszprém: Veszprémi Egyetem. 5. van Dijk T. A Text and Context. Explorations in the semantics and pragmatics of discourse. London and New York: Longman. 6. van Dijk, T.A Studies in the Pragmatics of Discourse. The Hague, New York: Mouton. 7. Fetzer, A Recontextualizing Context. Pragmatics & Beyond New Series 121. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. 8. Givón, T Context as Other Minds. The Pragmatics of Sociality, Cognition and Communication. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. 9. Grice H. P Logic and Conversation. In Cole, P. and Morgan, J.L. (eds.) Syntax and Semantics, 3: Speech Acts. New York & London: Academic Press. P Herczeg-Deli, Á Metaphor in Text. In Pârlog, H., L. Frenţiu. Romanian Journal of English Studies. Timişoara: Editure Universitǎţii de Vest. P

111 11. Hoey, M On the Surface of Discourse. London: George Allen & Unwin. 12. Hoey, M Signalling in discourse. In Coulthard, M. (ed.) Advances in Written Text Analysis. London & New York: Routledge. P Lakoff, G. and Turner, M., See in Givón, T Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M Metaphors we libe by. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. 15. Levinson, S.C., See in Stubbs, Smith, N. and Wilson, D Introduction. Lingua 87, P Sperber, D., Wilson, D. 1986, Relevance. Communication and Cognition. Blackwell. 18. Sperber, D., Wilson, D Relevance Theory. In UCL Working Papers in Linguistics 14. P Stubbs, M On inference theories and code theories: Corpus evidence for semantic schemas. Text 21(3). P Wilson, D. and Sperber, D Linguistic form and relevance. Lingua 90. P Winter, E. O Clause Relations as Information Structure. Two Basic Text Structures in English. In Coulthard, M. Knowles, M. (eds.) Talking about Text. Birmingham: University of Birmingham, ELR. P Winter, E.O The Notion of Unspecific versus Specific as one Way of Analysing the Information of a Fund-Raising Letter. In Mann, W.C. and Thompson, Sandra A. (eds.) Discourse Description. Diverse linguistic analyses of a fund-raising text. Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. P Winter, E Clause Relations and Information Structure: Two Basic Text Structures in English. In Coulthard, M. (ed.) Advances in Written Text Analysis. London & New York: Routledge. P Santrauka Sąveikos žinios dialoge Ágnes Herczeg-Deli Žodinės komunikacijos metu kalbos socialinės ir kognityvinės funkcijos sąveikauja tiek produkuojant kalbą, tiek ją interpretuojant. Straipsnio tikslas yra atskleisti, kaip tam tikri kognityviniai veiksmai skatina tarpasmeninę sąveiką diskurse. Taip pat bus parodyta, kaip žinios, būdamos konteksto dalimi, pradeda sąveikauti dialoge, t.y. kaip inicijuojantys diskursą pasakymai atlieka aiškinamąją funkciją, kai tuo tarpu kalbinė forma ne visada tiesiogiai nurodo į tai. Šis požiūris yra kognityvinis pragmatinis, besiremiantis reliatyvumo teorija. Straipsnyje parodoma, kad šios schemos supratimas prisideda prie žinių sąveikos, ir kad metaforizacija, kaip procesas būdingas natūralioms kalbos funkcijoms, taip pat vyksta ir tikruose dialoguose. Tyrimo duomenys paimti iš radijo pokalbių laidų anglų kalba, taip pat ir iš skambinančiųjų į BBC radijo programas klausytojų gyvų dialogų. 111

112 Towards Written Scientific-Technical Discourse Analysis: Statistical and Transformational Methods Abstract Irina Liokumoviča Riga Technical University, Institute of Languages, 1/1 Meza Str., LV-1048, Riga, Latvia, The paper explores the organization of English scientific-technical discourse in the field of civil engineering from the perspective of cohesion, texture and coherence. Various types of cohesive devices and ways of their expression in the discourse are analyzed and classified. The study focuses on statistical and transformational approaches to discourse analysis thus, making a synergy between theoretical concepts and empirical research data. It is based on the assumption that a scientific-technical discourse has a nominal character, i.e. its significant content is expressed by key nouns. They are viewed as significant discourse items and are singled out from the discourse on the basis of a statistical criterion. The syntactic combinations of key nouns with verbal predicates are traced. Transformational analysis is carried out on the level of type constructions and illustrated by examples from the research corpus data. The study results have a practical application in automatic discourse processing. In addition, the study outcomes may be used in delivering a course of lectures on discourse analysis as well as in teaching/learning writing skills at higher education institutions. Key words: scientific-technical discourse, discourse semantic organization, key nouns, verbal predicates, statistical analysis, transformational analysis. INTRODUCTION In recent years discourse studies have attracted the interest and attention of many scholars. The area is vast and diverse. It incorporates insights from different disciplines (e.g., linguistics, anthropology, philosophy, cognitive psychology, social psychology, artificial intelligence). Keeping disciplinary diversity in mind, it is no surprise that the term discourse has different meanings to scholars in different areas. There is a wide range of assumptions, approaches, methods and analyses of discourse. In terms of linguistics, initially it was used to describe oral speech. It was introduced by American linguists and it appeared obviously by the necessity to go beyond the limits of the study of sentences taken out of the context. Nowadays this term is used in connection with the study of written speech as well. The emphasis is placed on the discourse as a basic unit of analysis with the aim of studying its structure. 112

113 The communicative-functional approach to language has added a new dimension to discourse. It is seen as a major communicative unit. The primary focus is on language use. In terms of ELT discourse is viewed as a basis for understanding and practicing language use within larger meaningful contexts. In our study we will consider a discourse from a linguistic perspective in the context to denote English written scientific-technical text. The research aims are: To give an insight into the theoretical background of discourse organization from the perspective of cohesion, texture and coherence; To apply it in practice in the analysis of English scientific-technical discourse; To use research in discourse analysis as a framework for the development of language skills, in particular writing skills. Research object is ways of representation of significant content of discourse. Research methods are: Contextual analysis; Statistical analysis; Transformational analysis; Library research. Research data are English written scientific technical discourse corpus in the field of civil engineering totalling 50,000 word usages arranged thematically. 1. DISCOURSE ORGANIZATION: SOME CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS The present study is based on the assumption that a discourse reflects a certain real or mental situation which can be viewed from the author s standpoint. The discourse is made up of passages and sentences which reflect some fragments of the total situation described in it. Participants of the situation involve animate or inanimate objects, their properties, kind of relationship between them, events, actions and their complex interaction. The same situation expressed in the discourse may be viewed from different angles. This can be explained by the fact that each individual perceives the reality and gives a range of its interpretations depending on his/her types and levels of expert knowledge, background, individuality of thinking, membership in particular community, etc. Let us consider 3 main variables of discourse structure: (1) cohesion; (2) texture; (3) coherence. Cohesion is the aspect of the study of texture which can be seen as the process whereby meaning is channelled into a digestible current of discourse instead of spilling out formlessly in every possible direction (Halliday, 1994, 311). In addition, this process involves the discourse-forming resources of grammar and phonology. Cohesion provides surface evidence for discourse unity and connectedness. From the perspective of grammar, traditionally it is viewed as a set of non-structural resources for discourse organization. Cohesion can be defined as the set of resources for constructing relations in discourse which transcend grammatical structure. According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), the set of cohesive devices is classified into various types: 113

114 Reference; Ellipsis; Substitution Conjunction; Lexical cohesion. It should be noted that lexical cohesion is a complement to grammatical cohesion involving open system items (e.g., repetition/recurrence of lexical items, synonymy, hyponymy, pronoun substitutions). Cohesion can be represented by means of anaphoric and cataphoric ties in the text as well as conjunctive relations. Conjunctive items express certain meanings which presuppose the presence of other components in the text (Halliday and Hasan, 1976, 236). It is a well known fact that different scholars classify conjunctive relations differently. Halliday and Hasan (ibid, 238) propose to subdivide conjunctive items into four types: (1) additive; (2) adversative; (3) causal; (4) temporal. There are specific subtypes within each type. For instance, causal meaning has subtypes of reason, result and purpose. Each subtype of cohesive meanings can be expressed through various words. For example, a general causal simple conjunctive relation can be represented by means of so, then, thus, hence and therefore. Multiplicity can be found not just in a function (e. g causal relationship) form (e.g., therefore, consequently) direction, but also in a form function direction. So, a single word (form) can convey many conjunctive relations (functions). For instance, the conjunction then can express temporal, causal and conditional relations between clauses (Biq, 1990; Schiffrin, 1992). Graustein and Thiele (1983) subdivide conjunctive relations into many separate subclasses: alternative, explicative, conditional, concessive, instrumental, comparative, etc. Crombie (1985) describes conjunctive relations as binary values (e.g., cause-effect, condition-consequence, statement-exemplification, etc. and exemplifies them (because, so, if, etc.). Another concept to be discussed is coherence. By definition the term coherence represents the overall structure of a multi-sentence discourse in terms of macro-level relations between clauses or sentences so as to help to determine the overall argumentative structure of the discourse. Coherence reflects the deliberate discourse organization in terms of hierarchical structure to achieve a particular argumentative goal. It can be also viewed as the feature of the discourse which incorporates the ways and means by which ideas, concepts and propositions are presented. It is noteworthy to point out that although conceptually cohesion and coherence are independent of each other, there is an overlap between them (See Halliday 1994; 2002). 2. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY 2.1 Statistical Approach We will make an attempt to make a synergy between theoretical concepts and empirical research data. In our study, lexico-semantic means of forming discourse cohesion are represented mainly by the recurrence of the same noun (noun repetition), word and 114

115 contextual synonyms, associative and pronoun substitutions, hyperonyms, hyponyms, etc. These lexical items may extend not only across adjacent sentences but also throughout whole stretch of discourse. They are designed to denote a coreferential identity. In other words, different lexical items may denote identical referents. It should be stressed that this set of lexical items performs discourse organizing function and provides a thematic development of the discourse. The methods applied in this study are worth considering. Initially, a thorough examination of cohesive devices of the discourse was done in terms of lexico-grammatical, syntactic and referential consistency. It involved skimming through the text corpus so as to identify: (1) nouns in subject position in a sentence and their constant collocates verbal predicates; (2) lexical items with identical referent (e.g., dictionary and contextual synonyms, word and pronoun substitutions, etc.) Further, key words were selected on the basis of statistical criterion keeping in view the frequency of word usage within each passage of the discourse and the number of passages in which the word is used. There is a hierarchy among key words. The significant content of the discourse is expressed by a list of main and secondary key words selected on the basis of the statistical analysis. It is based on the formula (Marusenko, 1983): F M C sig. = (1) N n Where: C sig. is the coefficient of the significance of the word; F is the absolute frequency of the word in the discourse; M is the number of passages in which the word is used; N is the total number of words in the discourse; n is the total number of passages in the discourse. It should be noted that function words (e.g., articles, prepositions, particles, auxiliary verbs, etc.) were excluded from analysis. Also, we distinguished between lexico-grammatical homonyms according to their syntactic function in a sentence: noun, noun (attribute), participle II, participle II (attr.), adjective, infinitive, etc. The results of the statistical analysis of English scientific-technical discourse corpus in the field of civil engineering comprising 50,000 word usages show that the frequency of occurrence of the main key words verbs (9) and secondary key words -verbs (24) is low while that of the main key words nouns (203) and secondary key words nouns (291) is high. The number of the main key words adjectives (14) and secondary key words adjectives (41) is not large. This implies that the adjectives themselves without their connection with the key nouns do not convey the significant content of the discourse. Thus, the statistical data of the study, in particular the predominance of key nouns confirm the nominative character of the scientific - technical discourse. 2.2 Transformational Approach Since the combination of key words with explicit verbal predicate does not show the full development of the theme, we have extended verbal predicate base of the discourse by revealing implicit predicates by means of transformations. Transformation analysis 115

116 (TA) is applied to reveal semantic-syntactic (deep) structure of word combinations and sentences. In out study, they are implicit (deep) predicates which are expressed by means of surface structures. We will endeavour to examine some examples of transformations on the level of type constructions based on the data of the discourse corpus. It may be worth noting that the difference between the initial and transformed version concerns only the grammatical status whereas the semantic content is the same. 1. Prepositional nominal constructions (N 1 prep. N 2 ) For instance: Columns of the building T: The building is made up of columns. (ACI, 2008, 547). Where: N 1 Noun 1, prep. Preposition, N 2 Noun 2 The verbal predicate to be (is) made up of belongs to the lexico-semantic class of composition predicates, subclass of relative predicates. For instance: Exposed concrete/for a two-tower complex T: The exposed concrete is meant for a two-tower complex. (Ibid, 563). Where: a stroke ( / ) a semantic lacuna The transformation has disclosed implicit purpose relations presented by the content of the semantic lacuna, i.e., a predicate of purpose pertaining to the lexico-semantic group of relative predicates to be (is) meant for. 2. Nominal constructions (N 1 N 2 ) For instance: Dock walls T 1 : The walls belong to the dock. T 2 : The walls are part of the dock. (ACI, 2006, 123). Where: N 1 - Noun 1; N 2 - Noun 2 It should be noted that the elements are related hierarchically to each other as a whole and a part (meronymy). 2 types of transformations are possible. The nominal group (N 1 N 2 ) has been changed into: (1) the sentence with a possessive predicate belong to ; (2) the sentence with a composition predicate to be (are) part of. 3. Prep. V ing. N 1 For instance: In placing the mechanical systems T: As the mechanical systems were placed Where: Prep. Preposition; V ing - gerund; N 1 - Noun 1 The gerund in placing has been transformed into the subordinate clause with the predicate to be (were) placed which belongs to verbal predicate of space characteristics. As a result, we have selected a sequence of linear verbal-nominal combinations. They are composed of linear successive pairs noun * verbal predicate. 116

117 For instance: Building (plant) (No. 1) * is framed (No.1) building (plant) (No.1) * manufactures (No.1) building (plant) (No.4) * is placed (No.4) building (plant) (No.8) * is occupied (No.8) building (plant) (No.12) * has been functioning (No.12) (PCI, 2004, 156). Where: No. (Number) in round brackets - the number of the passage in which the word occurs; the sign * ( asterisk ) - combined with. This has enabled us to trace a set of actions in which each key noun is involved and give a number of its properties. Hence, we have shown the development of the significant content of the discourse. Also, we share the view that the sequence of verbs not only forms a conceptual unit, it also suggests unified pragmatic and rhetorical functions. One of these is to control the flow of information in the discourse (Hopper, 2008, 262). 3. SOME IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING/LEARNING WRITING SKILLS AT TERTIARY LEVEL In the light of ELT, discourse studies may serve as a tool for learning/teaching language skills (i.e., speaking, writing, listening and reading) at higher education institutions. In this paper, we will focus on discourse analysis in relation to the development of effective writing skills. Within the communicative approach writing is viewed as a language skill for communication. It means that a writer expresses his/her ideas in the form of a written discourse from which readers will extract meanings. In the process of learning/teaching writing skills, in particular essay writing students should be involved in creating the essay that is characterized by cohesion and coherence features and takes the potential reader s background knowledge into account. Moreover, essays should be potentially communicative to readers who are removed form the writing process itself. It follows, therefore, that a reader-based approach to writing is realized (Chafe, 1982; Olson, 1994). Since cohesion relies on grammatical and lexical devices, deficiency in students linguistic competence may result in difficulties which students may encounter in the process of writing. Thus, learners should be involved in creating a formal and grammatical cohesion among paragraphs and among sentences within each paragraph. We assume that the focus is on teaching coreferential (i.e., pronoun reference, synonyms) and causal cohesion (e.g., causal verbs and particles) since they reveal cause and effect relationship and develop discourse theme. For successive acquisition of writing skills students should master linguistics repertoire matched with effective use of conventional rhetoric. We propose to show students that the same list of verbal predicates interconnected by key nouns can be given a range of different interpretations depending on the learners proficiency level, psychological features, background knowledge, individuality of thinking, etc. It may be worth noting that their interpretations will be within the range of correct if they understand the meaning of various verbal-nominal collocations. 117

118 CONCLUSIONS In this paper we have shown that key words-nouns selected by means of a statistical analysis convey the significant content of English scientific-technical discourse. In order to show a chain of actions in which key noun is involved the verbal predicate base of the discourse can be extended by revealing implicit predicate relations based on transformational analysis. The sequence of verbal predicates linked by key nouns reflects the dynamic approach to the semantic organization of English scientific-technical discourse showing the development of the significant content of discourse. In the light of ELT, discourse studies can serve both as a framework and a tool for teaching/learning languages skills in general and writing skills in particular. Discourse analysis - oriented curriculum may be offered at higher education institutions. It should be the basis for courses with a discourse analysis orientation. It will encompass various relationships existing between discourse analysis, the language areas and the language skills, thus incorporating discourse analysis - based approach to language teaching. There is a need for professional training in discourse analysis for second and foreign language teachers as well as educators. The study of English scientific-technical discourse organization from the perspective of cohesion, texture and coherence is important for the development of cohesion and coherence models of discourse summarization. The study outcomes can be applied in automatic discourse processing. References 1. Biq, Y Conversation, Continuation, and Connectives. In: Text 10(3), P Chafe, W Integration and Involvement in Speaking, Writing and Oral Literature. In: Tannen, D. (ed.) Spoken and Written Language. Norwood, N.J: Ablex. P Crombie, W Process and Relation in Discourse and Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 4. Graustein, G. and Thiele, W English Monologues as Complex Entities. In: Linguistische Arbeitsberichte, No. 41, Sektion theoretische und angewandte Sprachwissenschaft, Karl-Marx- Universität, Leipzig, Allemagne. P Grefenstette, G. Extracting Meaning from Text In: Barnbrook, G., Danielsson P., Mahlberg, M. (eds.) Meaningful Texts: The Extraction of Semantic Information from Monolingual and Multilingual Corpora. London, New York: Continuum. P Halliday, M.A.K., Hasan, R Cohesion in English. Harlow: Longman (English Language Series No. 9.). 7. Halliday, M.A.K An Introduction to Functional Grammar. 2 nd ed. London: Edward Arnold. 8. Halliday, M.A.K Linguistic Studies of Text and Discourse. Webster, J. (ed.) London, New York: Continuum. 118

119 9. Hopper, P. J Emergent Serialization in English: Pragmatics and Typology. In: Good, J. (ed.) Linguistic Universals and Language Change. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. P Марусенко М. А О формировании словника словаря статистически устойчивых научно технических терминов. In: Структурная и прикладная лингвистика. Вып. 2. Л.: Изд-во Ленинградск. ун-та C McCarthy, M Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 12. McCarthy, M., & Carter, R Language as Discourse: Perspectives for Language Teachers. London, New York: Longman. 13. Olson, D. R The World on Paper: The Conceptual and Cognitive Implications of Writing and Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 14. Schiffrin, D Anaphoric then: aspectual, textual and epistemic meaning. In: Linguistics (3)4, P Verhagen, A Constructions of Intersubjectivity. Discourse, Syntax, and Cognition. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. 16. ACI Materials Journal/ A Journal of the American Concrete Institute, Vol. 103, No. 2, March-April ACI Structural Journal/ A Journal of the American Concrete Institute. Vol. 105, No. 5, September-October PCI Journal /Precast/ Prestressed Concrete Institute, Vol. 49, No. 1, January February Santrauka Apie rašytinio mokslinio techninio teksto analizę: statistiniai ir transformaciniai metodai Irina Liokumoviča Straipsnyje analizuojama civilinės inžinerijos mokslinių techninių tekstų anglų kalba kohezija, koherencija ir sandara. Analizuojamos ir klasifikuojamos įvairios teksto kohezijos priemonės ir galimi jų raiškos būdai. Pagrindinis tyrimo dėmesys skiriamas statistiniam ir transformaciniam teksto analizės metodams, kurie leidžia susieti teorinius teiginius ir empirinius tyrimo duomenis. Tyrimas sąlygotas prielaidos, kad mokslinis techninis tekstas yra vardažodinio pobūdžio, t.y. didelę jo turinio dalį sudaro raktiniai daiktavardžiai. Šie daiktavardžiai traktuojami kaip reikšmingi teksto vienetai ir išskiriami tekste, remiantis statistiniu kriterijumi. Nustatyta, kad tekste yra sintaksinių junginių, susidedančių iš raktinių daiktavardžių ir veiksmažodinių tarinių. Transformacinė analizė atlikta tipiškų konstrukcijų lygmenyje ir iliustruota pavyzdžiais iš tyrimo tekstyno. Tyrimo rezultatai turi praktinį pritaikomumą, apdorojant tekstą automatiniu būdu. Tyrimo rezultatai gali būti panaudojami skaitant teksto analizės paskaitas taip pat mokant/-is akademinio rašymo aukštojoje mokykloje. 119

120 The Smile of Eyes Rūta Sirvydė Vilnius Pedagogical University, 39 Studentų St., LT Vilnius, Lithuania, Abstract English and Lithuanian share many of the metonymies of joy. Descriptively, the preference of the source domain of eyes is the same in both languages, though other listed metonymic preferences differ. This fact indicates that in both cultures the eyes is the most salient source domain for the emotion of joy. The corpus data suggest that the more tears are, the greater joy a person experiences. Statistically, both tears and crying metonymies make up nearly 90 percent of all eye-located linguistic expressions of joy in Lithuanian. An interesting fact is that no smiling lips are involved. Actually, if we talk about smile, we talk about smiling eyes instead of smiling lips. This corpus-based research of emotion of joy seeks to find the answer, why the eyes are the most salient source domain for the concept of joy and why the smile of lips (that is a traditional signal of joyful emotions and is used as a symbol for it) is not involved in the set of conceptual mappings at all. The study of metonymic and metaphorical expressions covers both linguistic and psychological findings. Key words: emotions, metaphors, metonymies, joy, eyes, social experience in language. INTRODUCTION Although joy has been a subject of interest to philosophers, poets, and artists across the ages, it has never been a popular scientific topic. Joy has received far less attention than any of the other emotions. There is not much written about enjoyable emotions in psychological and linguistic reports yet, for nearly all emotion research has focused on the upsetting emotions instead. This is because attention has been focused on emotions when they cause problems to others and ourselves. As a result, we know more about mental disorder than about mental health (Ekman, 2004: 191). Linguistic data present many poetic expressions with the smile of eyes in colloquial Lithuanian which are not used in a poetical discourse. As we all know, smiling is a function of lips, hence, this transfer of the function in our everyday use seems rather an interesting psychological and linguistic phenomenon. Moreover, the smile of lips in descriptions of joy is absent in both English and Lithuanian. How can our eyes smile and why do they smile instead of lips? We decided to explore the questions in cross-cultural and interdisciplinary perspectives. 120

121 1. PHYSIOLOGICAL INDICATORS OF JOY Joy, as any other human emotion, is a physiological arousal. It is a hardwired response to the source of the emotion. Psychological research on joy trying to measure the functions of the emotion in order to find a specific physiological change for this particular emotion has been carried out by different scholars. However, the results provide us only with general information about joy. Consistent with Ekman and his colleagues finding (2004), a greater heart rate acceleration was observed to joy, anger and fear, than disgust and surprise. Skin temperature at the fingertips (dependent on skin blood flow and therefore on the activity in the cultaneous vasoconstrictor neurons) was much lower with joy than with the other basic emotions (Davidson et al., 2003: 176). The meta-analysis also revealed heart rate responses to be larger in anger and fear than joy (which differed on finger pulse volume). Emotion-specific differentiation for cardiorespiratory measures other than heart rate was less reliable (e.g., measures of bodily tension, facial temperature, respiration amplitude, inspiration volume, or cardiac stroke volume). Meta-analyses revealed that this effect did not achieve statistical significance (Lewis, Haviland-Jones, 2000: 200). Hence, linguistic data may provide us with the additional information about human emotion and experience, which is encoded in the language. 2. LINGUISTIC INDICATORS OF JOY In the Lakoff-Johnson framework metaphors are based on embodied human experiences (Lakoff and Johnson, 1999). The choice of such conceptual metaphors is unconscious and automatic. Because of universal bodily experience, metaphoric correspondences in languages should be universal. In other words, universal primary experiences produce universal primary metaphors (Kövecses, 2007: 3). The similar process happens with metonymies, which are also conceptual in their origin (Lakoff, 1987). Metonymies in the language are also unconscious and supposedly are based on human experience. Therefore, Lithuanian and English corpus data may justify whether they are really based on universal bodily experience, and hence, are universal. On the other hand, if they indicate some cross-cultural variety in different ways, we will be able to follow the way of conceptualization in different cultures. A corpus based investigation from the British National Corpus and the Lithuanian national corpus Donelaitis (each consisting of about 100mln. words collections) has shown that one of the most interesting aspects in linguistic research is location for the emotion of joy in the human body, which may be considered as the linguistic indicators of joy. Different cultures employ different parts of the body for the same emotional experience. In order to avoid emotional misinterpretation the data include the emotional lexeme of joy. Hence, about 1000 samples suggest that joy may be located in: 1. EYES (English: a brief glimpse of the joy; eyes welled up with tears of joy; with the afterglow of joy in his eyes. Lithuanian: liejo džiaugsmo ašaras; akys džiaugsmingai šypsojosi; džiaugsmo ašaros užplūsta akis). 121

122 2. VOICE (English: shouted with joy, screamed for joy, an exclamation of joy; Lithuanian: krykštė iš džiaugsmo, iš džiaugsmo rėkė nesavais balsais, verkė ir dainavo iš džiaugsmo, klykė iš džiaugsmo) 3. HEART (English: His heart was filled with joy; your heart leaps with joy; that brings joy to the heart. Lithuanian: Džiaugsmas plūstelėjo į širdį; širdin smelkiasi tylus džiaugsmas; širdis jam dainuotų iš džiaugsmo; Iš džiaugsmo apsalo širdis) 4. HANDS (iš džiaugsmo rankomis ploti; trynė rankas iš džiaugsmo) 5. SOUL (Meilė - sielos džiaugsmas; sieloj gyveno džiaugsmo ilgesys) Table 1 presents which parts of the body take part in joy metonymies and how frequent they are in English and Lithuanian (number of occurrences in the corpus of about 100mln words): Table 1. Location and frequency of joy in the human body A part of the body English Lithuanian Eyes Face 2 12 Hands - 23 Heart 8 53 Soul - 6 Voice Though eyes are not used in physiological measurements for joy, they are the main place for joy location in both languages. In both languages they show the highest rate of frequency of the expressions. This means language users tend to use eye expressions more often than any other part of the body in their descriptions of joy. The mapping patterning with the eyes covers two possible variants: the glimpse and the eyes themselves, which, in their turn, may be radiant or weeping in both languages, and smiling in Lithuanian: English 1) The victory against England, Baxter s impudent role on the day and the fan s moment of sublime passion, conveys a brief glimpse of the joy and vulnerability that Scottish football embodies. 2) She shut her heart firmly against the look of incredulous joy that lit Rachel s face. 3) This filled my eyes with tears of joy and love. 4) That s better, his grandmother approved when Richard returned, still pinkcheeked and with the afterglow of joy in his eyes. 5) Her eyes welled up with tears of joy. 6) He wept for joy to hear this good news. 122

123 Lithuanian 7) Vos pastebima džiaugsmo ašara nuriedėjo švelniu Gailės skruostuku. 8) Laimė buvo neišmatuojama, veržėsi džiaugsmo ašaromis... 9) Džiaugsmo ašaros byra pagalvojus, kiek tas mažytis lopinėlis prie Baltijos pagimdė galiūnų: bankininkų, banditų, žudvyrių, valdžiavyrių... 10) Netikėjau, kad taip gali būti, maniau, jog sapnuoju, prisipažino D.Elmentaitė, po finišo apsipylusi džiaugsmo ašaromis, kurias netrukus jau plovė trenerio Algio Buivydo atkimštas šampanas. 11) Ji iš džiaugsmo verkė, o jos dukra drąsiai eidama garsiai šaukė: Švenčiausioji Mergelė suteikė man malonę! 12) Tėvas apsiverkė iš džiaugsmo, nubėgo pas Pilypą buteliuko ir negrįžo visą savaitę. 13) Besišypsančios senuko akys blykstelėjo beprotybe. 14) Jis tyliai stebi ją šypsančiomis akimis, taip, kaip moka stebėti menininkas (...). 15) Išėję iš bažnyčios jie jautėsi pakylėti, jaunų žmonių akyse spindėjo džiaugsmas Metaphorical expressions focus on the amount of the emotion of joy. A tear represents the lowest rate of the emotional arousal. At the same time TEAR motivated figurative expressions are metonymic as they have direct relevance to the action of weeping. Though a tear is a very small amount of fluid it still behaves as any other fluid in the world according to the scenario of nature. In Lithuanian this way of conceptualisation is expressed by various expressions like džiaugsmas ašaras spaudžia, liejo džiaugsmo ašaras, apsipylusi džiaugsmo ašaromis, laistė džiaugsmo ašaromis, džiaugsmo ašara nuriedėjo (7), veržėsi džiaugsmo ašaros (8), džiaugsmo ašaros užplūsta akis, iš džiaugsmo ašara sužvilga, džiaugsmo ašaros trykšta iš mūsų akių, džiaugsmo ašaros byra (9). English literal translations for such expressions might be as the following ones: joy squeezes tears, one watered tears of joy, poured herself with tears of joy, a tear of joy has rolled down, tears of joy spurt out, flood up our eyes, glitter, sping out or even crumble away as any hard object. From our experience we also know that we use fluids in the world to water things and to get things wet, hence, such figurative expressions like apsipilti džiaugsmo ašaromis to pour oneself with tears of joy ( to burst into tears ) as in (10) are rather conventional in Lithuanian. Other parts of the body indicate the location of joy rather than any possible measurement. 3. JOY CRYING OR SMILING? Lithuanian shares with English the same metonymic patterning where human behaviour of crying is central. Psychologically it is rather an interesting phenomenon as a crying person prototypically is represented as being sad, whereas joyful emotions are prototypically represented by a smiling face. For instance, the computer symbol stands for a joyful face, or the icons in s and mobile phone texting, which are called 123

124 emoticons from the combination of two words: emotion and icon, like these (:,-( stand for a sad face and weeping. However, statistically, both tear and crying metonymies make up nearly 86 percent of all eye-located linguistic expressions of joy in Lithuanian. This leads us to conclude, that Lithuanian applies the conceptual metonymy: WEEPING/ TEARS FOR JOY. However, this metonymy is also applied in the emotion of sadness and it contradicts the prototypical representation of joy which is usually expressed by a smiling face. In order to answer, why we still understand that a crying person is sad, when nearly all linguistic data suggest that he/she should experience joy, we need to look back at the linguistic patterning of the emotion. The language data suggest about the constraint in order to avoid any ambiguity in interpretation of the emotion. The constraint is expressed on a fixed lexical labelling, where the lexeme of joy is always present, no matter in what scenario tears and crying are involved. This is why both Lithuanian and English use a tear of joy or crying/weeping for joy instead of just a tear or just crying/weeping that theoretically might stand for joy, but actually stands for sadness. In other words, a smile still prototypically stands for joy, tears/crying for sadness. Any violation to the prototypical representation must be explained by naming the emotion itself. 4. WHY A SMILE IS IN OUR EYES? If tears are always followed by indication of joy in the expression to avoid any emotional ambiguity, a quite opposite use is of the smiling eyes in Lithuanian (13; 14). Even in the absence of the emotion naming lexeme of joy, the smile of eyes is still understood as a signal of joy. How can our eyes smile and why do they smile instead of lips? The answer is beyond linguistics. The great French neurologist Duchenne de Boulogne discovered how the true enjoyment smile differs from all of the nonenjoyment smiles. He wrote that the emotion of frank joy is expressed on the face by the combined contraction of the zygomaticus major muscle and the orbicularis oculi. The first obeys the will but the second is only put in play by sweet emotions of the soul (Duchenne de Boulogne, 1990 [1862] cited in Ekman, 2004: 205). In other words, an outer part of the muscle that runs all around the eye socket pulling down the eyebrows and the skin below the eyebrows, pulling up the skin below the eye, and raising the cheeks cannot be voluntarily contracted. Fox and Davidson support this view and report of a ten-month-old infant who smiles without involvement of the muscle around the eye, when he is approached by a stranger; and the eye-orbiting muscle is involved in the smile when the mother approaches the infant (Fox & Davidson, 1987). The linguistic data correlates with these findings and suggest that in our cultural mind the experience of the social smile is hardwired. It is not related to the emotion of joy and is expressed by a smile without changes in the eye area. People have noticed that there are many different nonenjoyable smiles. Some of them are polite smiles, involving just the smiling lips. There are also smiles used to indicate that the listener agrees with or understands what the speaker is saying during a conversation. Some 124

125 smiles signal hesitation and that the person means no harm, but he/she is not yet certain about what is going to happen next. It is possible to produce an angry smile, or a certain smile clearly expresses disgust. It is quite possible, that a smile may be an expression of sadness, when the person smiles in order to show that he is not breaking down, he will manage his regret and likely despair (for example, politicians show such smiles after their resignation). Miserable smiles show you are a good sport, that you can take the criticism and still smile about it (Ekman, 2004). Though people knew nothing about specific muscles around the eyes, which are the only indicators of true joy, deep in their mind everyday experience with social or false smiles has been hardwired. The linguistic data suggest that in our experience smiles are not really reliable signals for joy. This experience has designed conceptual mappings in our minds which are represented by the application of the radiant or smiling eyes, as the most salient source domain for the concept of joy, and eliminating smile from the potential list of metonymic motivators for the emotion. CONCLUSIONS The results of the research on different linguistic expressions of joy correlate with different social and biological findings. Some linguistic expressions like the smile of eyes for joy suggest about culturally hardwired psychological experience encoded in languages. Hence, metaphors and metonymies may reveal deep structures of our mind and how social experience unconsciously shapes our way of thought. References 1. Davidson, R. J.; Scherer, K. R.; Goldsmith, H. H. (eds) Handbook of Affective Sciences, P Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2. Donelaitis [the Lithuanian online corpus]. Available from: 3. Ekman, P Emotions Revealed: Recognizing Faces and Feelings to Improve Communication and Emotional Life. New York: An Owl Book, Henry Holt and Company. 4. Fox, N. A. & Davidson, R. J Electroencephalogram asymmetry in response to the approach of a stranger and maternal separation in 10-month-old children. Developmental Psychology, 23, P Kövecses, Z Metaphor in Culture. Universality and Variation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6. Lakoff, G Women, Fire and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 7. Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M Philosophy in the flesh: The embodied mind and its challenge to Western thought. New York: Basic Books. 8. Lewis, M. & Haviland-Jones, J. M. (eds.) Handbook of Emotions (2nd edition). New York/ London: The Guilford Press, P Lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Available from: Oxford English Dictionary Online. Available from: The British National Corpus. Available from: 125

126 Santrauka Akių šypsena Rūta Sirvydė Džiaugsmas yra labai svarbi emocija mūsų gyvenime, tačiau galbūt dėl to, kad ji nesukelia mums rūpesčių ar rimtų nemalonių pasekmių, ji yra viena iš mažiausiai aprašytų emocijų mokslinėje literatūroje. Anglų ir lietuvių kalbų tekstynų analizė rodo, kad džiaugsmo metaforiniai ir metoniminiai posakiai abiejose kalbose yra panašūs. Nors džiaugsmas metonimiškai siejamas su įvairiomis kūno dalimis, dažniausiai vartojami posakiai džiaugsmą sieja su akimis. Akys iš džiaugsmo spindi, švyti ar šypsosi, tačiau net apie 90 proc. atvejų prisipildo ašarų. Lietuvių kalboje ašaros yra tarytum savotiškas džiaugsmo stiprumo matas: kuo daugiau ašarų, tuo didesnis džiaugsmas. Toks modelis prieštarauja įprastam džiaugsmo stereotipui, kai džiaugsmo emocija siejama su šypsena, o liūdesio su ašaromis. Lietuvių kalbos posakiai su šypsena taip pat fiziologiškai yra neįprasti. Palyginus psichologinius ir lingvistinius tyrimus paaiškėja, kad kalboje tokie posakiai atsiranda neatsitiktinai. Kalba atskleidžia tam tikrą fiziologinę ir socialinę patirtį, kuri nesąmoningai yra užkoduota metaforose ir metonimijose. Pavyzdžiui, lietuvių kalboje akys, o ne lūpos šypsosi todėl, kad būtent akių išraiška leidžia atskirti tikrą džiaugsmo šypseną nuo apsimestinės ar socialinės. Toks kelių mokslo sričių tyrimų palyginimas ne tik paaiškina prieštaravimus tarp įprastų simbolių, logikos, fiziologijos ir kalbos posakių, bet leidžia giliau pažvelgti į mūsų mąstymo ir kalbos prigimtį. 126

127 The Realization of the Finite Process in the Matrix Proposition with Embedded Nominalizations in English Scientific Discourse Abstract Solveiga Sušinskienė Šiauliai university, 38 P. Višinskio St., Šiauliai, Lithuania, The aim of the present paper is to analyze the realization of the finite process in the matrix proposition with embedded verb-based nominalizations. Nominalizations are a feature of scientific English. They are phrases with an abstract noun as a head. The proposition is the underlying structure of the nominalization, i.e. it is the matrix of the nominalization. Embedded in the matrix proposition, nominalizations function as participants. The following types of matrix-proposition could be distinguished: material, happening, mental, verbal, relational, and existential. The processes in propositions exist in two modes: congruent (i.e. expressed by the finite form of the verb) and non-congruent (i.e. expressed by a nominalized form of the verb). Participants involved in the matrix proposition are labelled as semantic functions: Agent, Affected Patient, Effected Patient, Senser, Phenomena, Carrier, Attribute, Sayer, Verbiage, and Existents. These functions were established on the basis of the analysis of congruent sentences. The inspection of the examples collected demonstrated that the nominalizations are in position to perform the same functions as their non-derived counterparts. Key-words: finite process, verb-based nominalization, scientific text, semantics. INTRODUCTION Nominalizations are a feature of written English, particularly a feature of scientific English. In the scientific discourse, nominalization as a process is used to create technical taxonomies; it helps the writer to relate one process to another and thus create chains of reasoning (Halliday, 1988, 195). Thus nominalization is a resource in the construction of scientific texts. Last but not least, nominalization contributes to language economy. The object of the present study is verb-based nominalizations in English scientific discourse. The aim of the present paper is to establish the realization of the finite process in the matrix proposition with embedded verb-based nominalizations. To achieve the aim I examined: 1) the semantic types of processes in the matrix propositions, 2) the semantic functions of embedded inherent nominalizations, 3) verbal lexemes used in 127

128 both congruent and non-congruent variants of matrix propositions. Embedded in the matrix proposition, nominalizations function either as participants or circumstances. The verb-based nominalization is generally defined as a process by which the verb is converted into the corresponding noun. Nominalizations are phrases with an abstract noun as a head. The nominalizations used in the corpus were derived in two ways: 1) by the use of material suffixes -age, -al, -ance/-ence, -(e)ry, -ion/-sion/-tion/-ation, -ing, -ment, -sis, -ure, -th and 2) by the use of zero suffixes (conversion). For example: use usage, arrive arrival, develop development, communicate communication, answer answer, etc. The proposition is the underlying structure of the nominalization. In other words, the proposition is the matrix of the nominalization. It will be noted that the proposition is not an abstract construction: linguistically it is realized as a clause. Consequently, the nominalization is materially related to the clause; semantically it is related to the propositional content of the clause. 1. MATERIALS AND METHODS The present study is based on two corpora. The first corpus consists of selected examples drawn from different scientific texts linguistics (Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics by J. Lyons (1969), Cambridge: CUP), history (The Unfinished Nation. A Concise History of the American People by A. Brinkley (1997), New York: Alfred A. Knopf), and economics (Economics in One Lesson by H. Hazlitt (1979), New York: Crown Publishers, INC). The second corpus is the British National Corpus (BNC). One of the ways to search the BNC online is offered through the site of Variation in English Words and Phrases (VIEW), developed by Mark Davies at Brigham Young University. This is not affiliated with the BNC Consortium but has permission to provide limited access to the corpus under certain conditions (see The corpus data for the present paper were drawn from the non-fiction non-academic humanities and art component of the BNC. The collected examples were analyzed by using descriptive, transformational, and componential analysis methods. By means of the descriptive method verb-based nominalizations were identified, classified and described. Then the distinctions of these elements were established, i.e. differences and similarities, and the relationship with concrete (base) nouns. The transformational method was employed to show the relationship between the underlying proposition and the respective nominalization. In other words, the proposition is the underlying structure of the nominalization (i.e. the proposition is the matrix of the nominalization). Similar to all lexical elements, the proposition can be viewed as consisting of semantic elements, or components, such as Processes, Participants and Circumstances. The use of componential analysis method makes it possible to establish the meaning of the proposition which is constituted by respective semantic elements. 128

129 2. THEORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS The study of language as a means of communication has become an important aspect in linguistics. To cite Van Valin and LaPolla (2002, 82), the communicative functions of language are central to the analysis of its structure, and one (but not the only) function of language is reference and predication, that is, representing things that happen in the world (or a possible fictional world) and the participants involved in those situations. The content of the communication is a situation, which does not refer directly to an extralinguistic reality which exists in the real world, but rather to the speaker s conceptualization of it. The components of this conceptualization of reality are semantic functions, or roles: processes, participants and circumstances. Of all the components of a situation, the most important is the process. It is the basis for a proposition; the remaining components are either participants in the situation or play other, auxiliary, roles: they characterize the participants. To quote Halliday (1994,106), reality is made up of processes. The process is expressed by a verb, which is the core of any sentence. The following types of processes or propositions can be distinguished: material, happening, mental, verbal, relational, and existential (Halliday, 1985; Dik, 1978; Downing and Locke, 1992; Thompson, 1997; Valeika, 1998). These six proposition types represent different degrees of dynamism: ranging from material propositions as the most dynamic to the least dynamic existential. The process in propositions exists in two modes: congruent (i.e. expressed by the finite form of the verb) and non-congruent (i.e. expressed by a nominalized form of the verb). The use of one or the other mode is determined by informational-pragmatic factors and language economy requirements: the speaker, or writer, depending on his/her intentions or goals, in referring to a situation, can use either the congruent form of the proposition or the non-congruent. Nominalizations, or nominalized propositions, do not occur alone, they are parts of propositions. Propositions which include them are semantically noncongruent. Semantically, a proposition, as noted by Jackson (1997, 137), is composed of a situation type together with its associated participants and circumstances. A proposition functions as a device for describing a situation. The semantic framework for a situation typically consists of three components: processes, participants, and circumstances. Participants involved in the matrix proposition are entities (i.e. things that have definite, individual existence in reality or in the mind). Such participants are labelled as semantic functions which present two categories: inherent and non-inherent. To inherent (i.e. essential) functions belong Agents, Affected Patients, Effected Patients, Recipients, Sensers, Phenomena, Carriers, Attributes, Sayers, Verbiage, Existents. To noinherent functions belong Circumstances: non-spatial (Instrument, Accompaniment, Manner, Cause, Reason, Purpose, etc.) and spatial (temporal and non-temporal). These functions have been established on the basis of the analysis of congruent sentences (Halliday, 1985; Downing and Locke, 1992), i.e. sentences in which the constituents are expressed by concrete nouns. All the above mentioned participants have roles in the 129

130 states of affairs, much the same way actors and props have roles in a play (Van Valin and LaPolla, 2002, 84). 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS As already indicated, the semantic function of an embedded nominalized proposition is determined, naturally, by the type of process of the matrix proposition. The question that may arise at this point is: do users of the language employ the same verb lexemes as in the corresponding congruent situations or do they use different lexemes? The choice of a lexeme is generally determined by the type of the process. So, for instance, in material propositions the Process will have the feature [+Agentive]; in happening propositions the process will have the feature [- Agentive]; in mental propositions the process will have the feature [+Stative]; in verbal propositions the process will have the feature [+Agentive], and in relational and existential propositions the process will have the feature [+Stative]. It would be naïve to assume that embedded nominalizations should affect the nature of the Process type. Thus, if the proposition with an embedded nominalization is material (i.e. the process of such a proposition is Agentive), the process, naturally, will be material. Material processes or processes of doing involve some physical action and show that something is going on in the external world. To cite Halliday (1994, 110), They express the notion that some entity does something which may be done to some other entity. Material processes are carried out by a participant called the Agent, a willful, purposeful instigator of an action or event (Van Valin and LaPolla, 2002, 85). According to Cruse (1973), Agents are characterized by the following features: volitive, effective, initiative and force. For instance: (1) Taxation for public housing destroys as many jobs in other lines as it creates in housing (Hazlitt, 1979, 34). Cf. A colossal tsunami destroyed the Minoan civilization in minutes (BNC). Other participants in a doing situation are: the Affected Patient, the Effected Patient, the Recipient, and the Beneficiary. The Affected Patient means one that undergoes or suffers the process. Consider: (2) In one area American Teetotalism then affected the English movement which in turn set an example for Nonconformity as a whole (BNC). Cf. Although, the rule of the clock affected most people in the sixteenth century far less than it does us today, < > (BNC). An Effected participant is what is traditionally called result : (3) It had constructed the beginnings of a modern welfare system (Brinkley, 1997, 702). Cf. More than a century ago tunnels and galleries were cut into the cliffs here by the engineers who constructed the Axenstrasse road which enabled vehicular traffic to pass along the lakeside towards the Gotthard and obviate the need for lake transshipments (BNC). The Recipient is the participant to whom the action is directed and who receives the goods. For example: 130

131 (4) Whatever their theoretical pronouncements, both the analogists and the anomalists admitted that there were certain regularities in language, and both contributed to the systematization of grammar (Lyons, 1969, 8). Cf. The only conclusion that is possible is, that until satisfaction other than those provided through the physical desires became necessary to enrich life, all that went before and contributed to the human body was good and new philosophy or religion which emerges must be adapted to this (BNC). The inspection of the examples shows that the use of nominalizations, irrespective of their semantic functions does not exert any tangible influence on the choice of a verbal lexeme in material propositions. Not all propositions have a participant which carries out the process by means of its own energy (intentionally or not intentionally). In a situation like The dog died the participant is neither controlling nor initiating the process. This type of process involves happening rather than doing. Being involuntary, happening processes must also include behavioural processes. Happening (behavioural) processes usually have only one participant which is called the Behaver. Consider: (5) But if even a few firms in an industry were unwilling to cooperate< >, the pool arrangements collapsed (Brinkley, 1997, 494). Cf. Two buildings collapsed, trapping scores of people in the rubble (BNC). In the corpus under investigation, more lexemes that can be used in both non-congruent and congruent happening propositions, were found, e.g. change, emerge, increase, decline, fail, etc. Mental processes form a conceptual semantic category: there is a clear boundary between something that goes on in the external world and something that goes on in the internal world of the mind. Mental processes involve the processes of feeling, thinking and perceiving. Halliday (1985, 107) labels the three subtypes as processes of perception, cognition, and affection. The key participant in mental processes is the Senser, or the Recipient Experiencer, who perceives, knows, likes, etc. Consider: (6) The German Government declared that the decision ignored the mandatory character of the Convention, producing effects similar to those of notification (BNC). Cf. The anti-fascists largely ignored the demonstration (BNC). There is usually a second participant, the Phenomenon, which is perceived, known, liked, etc. Consider: (7) The Iranians saw domination of this hilly area as throwing the way open for a push towards Baghdad (BNC). Cf. Everywhere else, however, the late 1950s saw filmmakers of every hue turning to comedy as they struggled to audiences and prevent their defection to television (BNC). As can be seen, non-congruent mental propositions make use of the same verbal lexemes as respective congruent propositions. The corpus under investigation yielded more mental verbs: expect, assume, experience, remember, appreciate, inspire, enjoy, concern, etc. Verbal processes are processes of saying and communicating. A verbal process typically contains a participant called the Sayer: 131

132 (8) In response to these actions, while convocation debated the necessity to uphold the Ordinances, the archbishop summoned a meeting in march of bishops and magnates to denounce Gaveston and to defend the realm; < > (BNC). Cf. Scholars have long debated the origins of Roman portraiture and the influence of the contemporary Greek world upon the appearance of the portraits of individual Romans (BNC). One more participant involved in a verbal process is the Verbiage: (9) As we shall see in the course of this book, many of the insights into the structure of language obtained by the classical grammarians were valuable and revealing, but demand reformulation in more general and more empirical terms (Lyons, 1969, 18). Cf. The characteristics of electronics production and marketing seem to demand companies which can combine scale economies with quick-footed innovation (BNC). The most common verbal lexemes found in the corpus were: claim, announce, suggest, argue, recite, debate, discuss, etc. Practically, the same verbal lexemes were used in both congruent and non-congruent variants of verbal propositions. The category of relational propositions rests on the notion of being. Nominalizations functioned as participants in the vast majority of the relational propositions used to describe, classify, exemplify, identify, decompose, order, interface, contrast, explain, prove and so on. Halliday (1993, 40) argues that Scientific English has in fact been expanding the meaning potential in this area of the grammar by leaps and bounds for over three hundred years to the point where hundreds of verbs are routinely deployed which relate these nominalizations to one another. Relational processes, as their name implies, have two obligatory participants, the Carrier and the Attribute which are related to each other on one of two general ways through attribution or through identification. Consider, respectively: (10) Such assumptions became the basis of a popular social theory of the late nineteenth century: Social Darwinism, the application to human society of Charles Darwin s law of evolution and natural selection among species (Brinkley, 1997, 496). Cf. In 1911, Ronald Amundsen became the first man to reach the south Pole (BNC). (11) Far more important, however, than the details of the grammatical analysis of Latin carried out by the scholars of the later Middle ages were the philosophical presuppositions which they brought into the study of language (Lyons, 1969, 14). Cf. Research revealed that, as a result of this, the biggest single occupational groups were petty traders and domestic servants (BNC). The process of relational propositions can be realized by such relational verbs as be, become, have relate, end up, look, exemplify, represent, constitute, follow, correlate, differ from, lead to, prove, etc. Existential processes denote the existence of somebody or something. Existentials typically involve the presentative There, which is followed by such verbs as be, exist, stand, lie, stretch, hang, remain, occur, follow, appear, emerge, loom and a nominal group. Existential clauses have only one obligatory participant the Existent, which may be human and non-human. For example: 132

133 (12) By 1897 Dawson City grown up where no previous settlement existed (BNC). Cf. It is true that elephants existed at that time in the extreme south of China, < > (BNC). As can be seen, the Process of existential proposition can be realized by a relatively large number of existential lexemes. In the non-congruent existential propositions used in the corpus it was realized by the lexeme exist, i.e. a lexeme common to both patterns. CONCLUSIONS The examination of the material revealed that the actual semantic functions of a nominalization were not determined by the type of proposition they derived from; they were determined by the type of the matrix proposition they were used in: the nominalizations, irrespective of the proposition type they derived from, demonstrated functional potential similar to the potential of their non-derived (base) counterparts. This does not, however, suggest that the semantic properties of the underlying proposition have nothing to do with the functional potential of the nominalizations: some nominalizations contributed more to the semantic information of the text, others less. References 1. Cruse,W. J Some Thoughts on Agentivity. In: Journal of Linguistics, 9, P Dik, S. C Functional Grammar. Amsterdam: North Holland. 3. Downing, A. &Locke, P A University Course in English Grammar. London: Prentice Hall, Inc. 4. Halliday, M. A. K An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Arnold. 5. Halliday, M. A. K New Developments in Systemic Linguistics. London; New York: Pinter. 6. Halliday, M. A. K. & Martin, J. R Writing Science: Literacy and Discursive Power. London: The Falmer Press. 7. Halliday, M. A. K An Introduction to Functional Grammar. 2 nd edition. London: Arnold. 8. Jackson, H Grammar and Meaning. London: Longman. 9. Thompson, G Introducing Functional Grammar. London: Arnold. 10. Valeika, L An Introductory Course in Semantic Syntax. Vilnius: Vilnius University Press. 11. Van Valin, D. & LaPolla Syntax. Structure, Meaning and Function. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 133

134 Santrauka Propozicijų-matricų su įterptomis veiksmažodinėmis nominalizacijomis asmenuojamosios veiksmažodžio formos realizavimas moksliniame tekste Soleviga Sušinskienė Darbo tikslas išanalizuoti, kaip realizuojamos propozicijų-matricų su įterptomis veiksmažodinėmis nominalizacijomis asmenuojamosios veiksmažodžio formos. Nominalizacijos ypač populiarios moksliniame tekste. Tai frazės, kurių pagrindinis komponentas yra abstraktus daiktavardis. Propozicija yra pamatinė nominalizacijos struktūra. Svarbiausia propozicijos dalis yra procesas. Kiti komponentai yra arba situacijos dalyviai, arba tuos dalyvius apibūdina. Skiriami tokie propozicijų tipai: materialinės, atsitikimo, mentalinės, verbalinės, reliacinės ir egzistencinės. Procesai gali būti dviejų formų: kongruentiniai (išreikšti asmenuojamąja veiksmažodžio forma) ir nekongruentiniai (išreikšti nominalizuota veiksmažodžio forma). Į propoziciją-matricą įterptos nominalizacijos atlieka dalyvių funkcijas. Dalyvių semantinės funkcijos yra dviejų kategorijų: inherentinės ir neinherentinės. Darbe analizuojamos šios inherentinės (esminės) semantinės funkcijos: agento, patiento, rezultato, recipiento, patyrėjo, fenomeno, sakytojo, pasakymo turinio, proceso atlikėjo, atributyvo, egzistento. Išanalizavus pavyzdžius paaiškėjo, kad nominalizacijos gali išreikšti tas pačias semantines ir sintaksines funkcijas kaip ir jų neprocesiniai antrininkai. Palyginus kongruentinius sakinius su nekongruenciniais (t. y. turinčiais įterptą nominalizaciją) paaiškėjo, kad procesas nusakomas praktiškai tomis pačiomis leksemomis. 134

135 Deictic Reference in Written Discourse Abstract Daiva Verikaitė Vilnius Pedagogical University, 39 Studentų St., LT-08106, Vilnius, Lithuania, Deixis as a means of verbal reference is reflected in the structure of language through personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns or demonstrative adverbs. The article presents analysis of the use of time and place indexical expressions, i.e. temporal and locative deictics in written discourse. Two main types of deictic use anaphoric and non-anaphoric are analysed in the article. The article examines the results of the relative frequency distribution of temporal and locative deictics in scientific research articles. The results of the analysis demonstrated that temporal and locative deictic reference in written discourse is used similarly to that in the spoken discourse. The temporal and locative deictic reference in the analysed written discourse is organised in an egocentric way: the means that express central and proximal relations with respect to the time and place of the text production are preferred to the means that embody peripheral or distal relations. Keywords: deixis, deictic reference, temporal deictics, locative deictics, indexicals. INTRODUCTION The process of communication, which involves the speaker and the addressee, occurs in a specific spatio-temporal situation. The speaker, who organizes the interaction, wishes to convey to and to obtain information from the addressee. The addressee is not only the receiver of information; the addressee is also the giver of information. In this respect the speaker and the addressee enjoys a similar status: both are partners in this informational exchange. However, it is the speaker who organizes the process of interaction. His or her duty is to initiate the exchange. Any exchange necessarily involves the identification of entities and processes, or, to use a more precise term, the process of reference. Reference is a relation between an utterance and an individual or set of individuals that it identifies (Matthews, 1997, 312). Referential items can be situational (exophoric) or textual (endophoric). An exophoric item refers to a thing identified within the context of situation. Items of textual reference are defined as anaphoric and cataphoric. In the case of anaphoric reference the linguistic item refers to some linguistic item in the preceding segment of the text, and in the case of cataphoric reference, the linguistic item refers to some other linguistic item in the segment of the text that follows (Halliday, Hasan, 1976, 33). In other words, reference is a semantic relation between the verbal referent and the referring items, i.e. it is a form of verbal pointing: the referring item refers to its referent by way of verbal pointing to it. 135

136 No matter whether exophoric or endophoric reference is used, the addressee must know which entity or process the speaker has in mind. To help the addressee, the speaker resorts to the use of specific linguistic forms called deictics, or indexicals, i.e. structures whose meaning is relative to a specific situation. These structures help the participants of the communicative act to navigate through a spatio-temporal area of the process of communication. Deixis is a word borrowed from the Greek verb meaning pointing or indicating. In pragmatics, deixis is a term used to denote a word or a phrase which directly refers to entities, processes, attributes and circumstances. In other words, deictic expressions are used by the speaker to identify entities, processes, attributes and circumstances in both linguistic and extra-linguistic situations. When the speaker and the addressee are in an extra-linguistic situation, the identification of the referents is easy. So, for instance, if the speaker and the addressee are in the same room, the entities are visible to both the speaker and the addressee, e.g. when the speaker says I, the addressee knows that I is the person speaking now; when the speaker says this book, the addressee knows that this book means the book close to the speaker; when the speaker says yesterday, the addressee knows that yesterday means the day before the time of the utterance. As can be seen, deixis gets its meaning from the situation. Therefore, the interpretation of deictic reference in the spoken discourse is easy. However, in the written discourse (texts) its interpretation becomes more complex for several reasons: 1) the coding time and the receiving time of the particular discourse can be quite remote, i.e. the temporal span between the moment of encoding when the writer creates the text and the moment of decoding when the reader perceives the text can be very large; 2) the location of the participants is different, i.e. the writer at the moment of text production is in a different location than the reader at the moment of text perception; 3) in most cases the participants of the interaction (the writer and the reader) are unfamiliar. The problems of deixis and deictic reference were extensively analysed by Lyons (1975), Levinson (1983), Hanks (1992), Nunberg (1993), Grundy and Jiang (1998), Grundy (2000), and Glover (2000). The focus of analysis in most of the studies was on spoken discourse. According to Levinson (1983, 85), deixis in spoken discourse is organised in an egocentric way: 1. The central person is the speaker. 2. The central time is the time at which the speaker produces the utterance. 3. The central place is the speaker s location at the utterance time. 4. The discourse centre is the point at which the speaker is currently at in the production of utterance. The hypothetical question arises whether the principles of deixis organization used in spoken discourse apply to written discourse. Therefore, the aim of the present article is to examine the use of deictic reference in written discourse and find out whether the principles of deixis organization used in spoken discourse are applied to written discourse. 136

137 The corpus for analysis was drawn from 216 scientific research articles written by different authors, which involved 1,750 pages of the text. The mean frequency of the occurrence of a particular item of deictic reference was calculated; the relative frequency of each type of items under analysis was determined. 1. TYPES OF DEICTIC REFERENCE According to Levinson (1983, 54), deixis concerns both the ways in which language incodes or grammaticalize the features of the context of utterance and in which the interpretation of utterances depends on the analysis of that context of situation. Deixis concerns the encoding of many different aspects of the circumstances surrounding the utterance and within the utterance itself. Every language utterance is made in a specific place, at a specific time, and by a specific person addressing a specific person. Therefore, traditional categories of deixis are person, place and time. Person deixis concerns the encoding of the role of participants in the speech events in which the utterance is delivered: the 1 st person is the grammaticalization of the speaker s reference to himself; the 2 nd person is the encoding of the speaker s reference to one or more addressees; the 3 rd person is the encoding of reference to persons and entities which are neither speakers nor addressees of the utterance. Place deixis concerns the encoding of spatial locations relative to the locations of the participants in the speech event. Most of languages, English including, grammaticalize at least a distinction between proximal (close to speaker) and distal (non-proximal) to speaker (sometimes close to addressee). Time deixis concerns the encoding temporal points and spans relative to the time at which the utterance was spoken. Levinson (1983, 85) also distinguishes discourse (or text) deixis, which concerns the use of expressions within an utterance to refer to some portion of the discourse. Discourse deixis, according to Levinson (ibid., 67), can be of two types: 1) non-anaphoric and 2) anaphoric. Levinson makes a distinction between anaphora and discourse deixis in the following way: if a pronoun or other demonstrative item refers to a linguistic expression (or a chunk of discourse itself) it is discourse-deictic; where a pronoun refers to the same entity as a prior linguistic expression refers to, it is anaphoric. Therefore, discourse-deictic and anaphoric items are not mutually exclusive. Lexical means expressing the category of deixis are personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns or demonstrative adverbs. In this article we will focus on the use of temporal and locative deictics, i.e. on the use of demonstrative deictic this and demonstrative adverbs here, there, now and then, which refer to the location of a process in space or time. They normally do so directly not via the location of some person or object that is participating in the process. They typically function as adjuncts in the clause, not as elements of the nominal group. 137

138 2. TEMPORAL DEICTIC REFERENCE Temporal deictic reference is concerned with the encoding of temporal points and spans relative to the time at which an utterance is spoken or a written message is produced. As the results of the present study are drawn from written discourse, we analyse the temporal points relative to the time the texts are produced. Following Fillmore (1971), the temporal point at which the text is produced is called coding time and the temporal point at which the text is received by a reader is called receiving time. Temporal deictic reference is grammaticalized in deictic adverbs of time and the grammatical category of tense. Time deixis makes reference to participant roles; therefore, now can be defined as the time at which the writer produces the text containing now. Hanks (1992, 52) suggests that one of the principal meanings of now is the time immediate to this utterance. In the act of speech the coding time and the receiving time can be assumed as identical (Lyons, 1977, 685). However, in written texts the span between the coding time and the receiving time can vary from several weeks to several months, depending on the time of production, publishing and text decoding. The limits of this process obscure, however, the span between the coding time and receiving time is not very important in written texts since the time of coding is projected to the time of receiving. The time dimension of the temporal deictic now can extend from a certain moment in the process of text production to several decades or even centuries. Consider: 1. The corresponding specifications for energy and nutrients are now presented. The temporal deictic now, as used in the text above, can be identified with a particular moment in the process of text production. However, such instances are not common in the analysed texts. The majority of the instances with the temporal deictic now imply a greater span of time: 2. The fact that Zoalene has been the only coccidiostat used in Malawi for several years, and whilst it has been shown by Reid (1975) that resistance to Zoalene develops slowly, it is probable that some resistance has now developed. 3. In many countries the use of chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides is now restricted. Text 1 demonstrates the use of now which is the closest to the coding time and the expansion of time span is the narrowest. However, in texts 2 and 3 the interpretation of now is more complicated. The reader of text 3 may interpret now as expanding from several years to several decades; however, the information that would justify the exact time dimension is not found in the texts. In order to interpret now, the reader has to use his general knowledge for the interpretation of the specific information concerning the statements presented in the text. On the one hand, scientific texts are supposed to be read by specialists of a particular field; therefore, it should not be difficult for the person interested in the subject to realise the approximate time of the event mentioned. On the other hand, in default of any information in the text the time span now could be interpreted as: 138

139 1. A certain moment in the process of text creation a particularized meaning of now. 2. A certain moment or period in the development of some process in the extralinguistic world a generalised meaning of now. All instances of now are ultimately deictic; however, not all instances are cohesive. Text 1 demonstrates the use of now directly connected to the moment in the process of text creation and has direct reference to the chunk of the succeeding text. Therefore, it is considered to be cohesive. Such instances of now with a particularized meaning are inconsiderable and have not much influence on the coherence of the analysed texts. Now with a generalised meaning has even less bearing on the text cohesion The Temporal Meaning of Here Although the main meaning of here is that of place, it also has an invariant meaning of time, i.e. it may indicate a certain moment or a point in time in the process of text creation hence it can express temporal relations. 4. Finally, to keep harvesting machines fully operational they must be adequately supplied with empty containers and full ones need to be removed promptly. Here again problems of manoeuvring large containers often cause logistic problems that limit the development of harvesting equipment. Here, as used in the above text, can be considered a temporal expression rather than locative since it indicates a point in time rather than a point of place. Consequently, here can be considered a counterpart of now. Here with a temporal meaning is not common in the analysed texts. It accounts for merely 0.5 per cent of total occurrences of here, therefore, is not subjected to a more detailed analysis The Temporal Deictic Then The temporal deictic now stands in opposition to the temporal deictic then, which could be defined as expressing: 1. A particular time in the past or future. 2. Next in time, space and order, immediately afterward. Then, when used with the first meaning, can refer to some linguistic element in the preceding text and function anaphorically. As noted by Levinson (1983, 85), since discourse unfolds in time, it seems natural that time-deictic words can be used to refer to portions of the discourse. When used with the second meaning, then functions conjunctively. In approximately one third of all the occurrences then functions anaphorically, whereas in two thirds of the occurrences it functions conjunctively. Consider: 5. The first reported natural occurrence of OA was in a low grade sample of corn analysed in a survey in the United States (Shotwell et al., 1969). Since then contamination of cereals, animal feedstuffs and mixed diets have been reported from various countries, including Japan. 6. The foreign DNA rapidly ligated into larger molecules, it replicated about 20-fold in the first 24 hr and was then gradually lost. 139

140 Then in text 6 functions conjunctively and instances of conjunctive then are the most frequent in the analysed texts. The conjunctive use of then accounts for 82 per cent, whereas the deictic use accounts for 12 per cent of the occurrences. However, conjunction is beyond the scope of our analysis. Text 5 demonstrates the anaphoric then, which refers to the immediately preceding sentence. Although the preceding sentence does not contain an exact indication of time, however, the implication is sufficient. Then refers to the time, which is indicated in the preceding sentence. The reference of the anaphoric then to the numerical expression of time in the preceding text creates a cohesive link between two sentences integrating them into a unified whole. In fact, then can function cataphorically, however such cases are not frequent in the analysed texts. Such being the case, the anaphoric function of then is the only function contributing to the integrity of the text. However, its infrequent use can be accounted for by the fact that temporal relations are not of crucial importance to science texts; on the other hand, a category of tense is sufficient means of temporal indication. Moreover, some other lexical means used to express temporal relations are often observed in the texts. It is interesting to note that the most frequently used lexical means of temporal expression in the analysed texts are today, at present and at this point. 3. LOCATIVE DEICTIC REFERENCE Place deixis concerns the encoding of spatial locations relative to the locations of the participants in the speech events (Levinson, 1983, 62). The pure locative deictic adverbs in English are here and there. In English they encode two degrees of proximity to the speaker proximal and distal (Grundy, 2000, 28). In the majority of cases the locative deictic items in a science text do not concern the location of the participants literally: they indicate that the referent is identifiable somewhere in the text Locative Deictic This Scientific texts are highly abstract in character; they are detached from the specific situation of their production. Therefore, the use of deixis, namely, the exophoric deictic element this with the modified noun designates specific boundaries of the perceptual cognition of the reader. The use of deixis of the type in this paper occurs frequently, especially at the beginning and at the end of scientific texts, in summaries and abstracts. As noted by Ehlich (1994, 213), this paper is a new entity in the world of writer and reader. The writer constructs this reality and the reader has it in his/her hands. The text is accessible to the sense perception for both of them. Consequently, in almost half of all the deictic occurrences of this it is used with the noun paper, in one fourth it is used with the noun review, the rest nouns such as context, study, research, discussion and thesis are also observed in the analysed texts. A list of the most frequently used nouns modified by the deictic this is presented in Figure

141 The position of the noun phrase with the deictic this is mostly restricted to: 1) the first paragraph of the text: 7. Some of the possibilities that have been proposed are considered in this paper < >. 2) the last paragraph of the text: 8. Several studies on pathological, immunological and behavioural aspects of stress are in accord with this thesis. Thus, the obvious question is whether stress may possess desirable qualities. In this review we provide some elucidation of this question and discuss the lines of evidence supporting the notion. 5% 5% 5% 5% 7% 20% 5% 48% Paper Review Study Research Discussion Thesis Contex Other nouns Figure 1. The relative frequency of the nouns modified by the deictic this 3.2. The Locative Deictics Here and There The main meaning of here is that of place. The results of the data analysis demonstrated that in 99.5 per cent of the occurrences here indicates place and in 0.5 percent of the occurrences it expresses temporal relation. Here also implies proximity to the speaker or the participants in the act of speech and it stands in opposition to there, which expresses locative relations indicating a particular place in some aspect remote from the speaker or participants in the communicative act. Consider: 9. That the variation in this ratio may be responsible for the variation in the observed fatness is suggested by the data in Fig. 1. Here the ratio is plotted against CP / ME for all nine of the feeds used by Kirchgessner et al (1978). 10. Recent archaeological evidence reported by West and Zhou (1988) indicates that by 6000 BC chickens had already become established in China. From here they reached Japan via Korea between about 300 BC and 300 AD. Both texts demonstrate the locative meaning of here functioning anaphorically. In both texts here refers to the noun phrase identifiable in the preceding text. The only difference between the two uses of here lies in the origin of the referent. In text 9 here refers to the noun phrase figure 1 used in the preceding sentence and it also refers to the figure that illustrates the data discussed in the article. Therefore, here exhibits a dual anaphoric and exophoric function. Here in text 10 exhibits an anaphoric function since it points to the noun phrase China. 141

142 The cataphoric function of here is observed only in a few cases: 11. In the foregoing section the main methods of demonstrating stress were enunciated. Here the literature on the actual responses measured will be considered. In accordance with the criteria mentioned above, either singly or severally, depending on the workers concerned, stressor activity can be ascribed to heat (Ben Nathan et al, 1976; Edens and Siegel, 1975; Benving and Vonder, 1978; Siegel and Gould, 1982); cold (Garren and Shaffner, 1956) etc <...>. The locative here refers forward to a rather large stretch of the text. Its reference is cohesive since it is not structurally predetermined. The cataphoric here is closely related to the reference item this. As a result, they can be interchangeable. Consequently, here can refer to the extended text, but often with the meaning that is not of place but of respect (Halliday, Hasan, 1976, 74). The locative here is opposed to the locative there. The data analysis demonstrated that locative there was extremely rarely used in the analysed texts. Only a very few cases of the anaphoric there were found. Consider: 12. The predicted effects of these assumptions are shown in Table 3a. On the assumptions made there, a substantial increase in fatness is predicted as feed protein content falls. The locative there points back to the referent linguistically encoded as the noun phrase Table 3a; therefore, the extra-linguistic referent is within the limits of the same text. Consequently, there has a dual function: anaphoric it points back to the linguistic referent in the preceding text and exophoric it points to the table. The dual function of there could be effective for the integrity of the text. However, due to the infrequent use it hardly affects the cohesion of the analysed texts. Summing up, the analysis of the data displayed the following tendency: deictics that express central or proximate position with respect to the time and place of text production were used far more frequently than those embodying peripheral or distal relation. Consequently, 89 per cent of the adverbial occurrences were constructed in an egocentric way with respect to the time and place of text production. The relative frequency of each temporal and locative item is presented in Figure 2. text production. The relative frequency of each temporal and Here 29% Then 9% There 2% Now 60% Now Here Then There Figure 2. The relative frequency of the temporal and locative deictic items 142

143 CONCLUSION The results of the analysis demonstrated that temporal and locative deictic reference in written discourse is used similarly to that in the spoken discourse. The temporal and locative deictic reference in the analysed texts of scientific research articles is organised in an egocentric way: 1) the central person is the writer; 2) the central time is the time at which the writer produces the text; 3) the central place is the writer s location at the time of text production. Therefore, the linguistic means that express central and proximal relations with respect to the time and place of the text production are preferred to the means that embody peripheral or distal relations. References 1. Ehlich, K Scientific texts and deictic structures. In: Baakes, K. (ed.) Key Issues of Syntax in the Special Languages of Science and Technology. English German. Heidelberg: Groos, Fillmore, C Towards a theory of deixis. In: The PCCLLU Papers (Department of Linguistics, University of Hawaii), 3-4, Glover, K. D The sequential analysis of proximal and distal deixis in negotiation talk. In: Journal of Pragmatics 32/7. 4. Grundy, P Doing Pragmatics. London: Arnold. 5. Grundy, P. and Jiang, Y Deictic reference and cognitive semantics. In: HKPU Working Papers in Chinese and Bilingual Studies 1, Halliday, M. A. K. and Hasan, R Cohesion in English. London: Longman. 7. Hanks, W. F The indexical ground of deictic reference, in Duranti, A. and Goodwin, C. (eds.). In: Rethinking Context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Levinson, S. C Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 9. Lyons, J Deixis as the source of reference. In: Keenan, E. L. (ed.) Formal Semantics of Natural Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Lyons, J Deixis and anaphora. In: Meyers, T (ed.) The Development of Conversation and Discourse. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 11. Matthews, P. H Concise Dictionary of Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 12. Nunberg, G Indexicality and deixis. In: Linguistics and Philosophy 68, Santrauka Deiktinė referencija rašytiniame diskurse Daiva Verikaitė Straipsnyje nagrinėjamas leksinių priemonių, išreiškiančių deiktinę laiko ir vietos referenciją, vartojimas rašytiniame diskurse. Deiksė kaip verbalinė referencijos raiška kalboje atsispindi vartojant asmeninius ir parodomuosius įvardžius, parodomuosius 143

144 prieveiksmius ir kitas leksines-gramatines priemones. Straipsnyje analizuojami du deiktinės referencijos tipai: laiko deiktinė referencija ir vietos deiktinė referencija. Atlikus leksinių priemonių, išreiškiančių minėtus du referencijos tipus, vartojimo tekste santykinio dažnumo skaičiavimus, buvo nustatyta, kad deiktinės referencijos vartojimas rašytiniame diskurse nesiskiria nuo jos vartojimo sakytiniame diskurse: tiek rašytiniame, tiek sakytiniame diskursuose deiktinė referencija konstruojama egocentriškai: 1) pagrindinis asmuo yra teksto kūrėjas, 2) pagrindinis laikas yra teksto kūrimo laikas, 3) pagrindinė vieta yra vieta, kurioje yra teksto kūrėjas, kurdamas tekstą. Todėl analizuotuose tekstuose dominuoja leksinės priemonės, kurios geriau padeda konstruoti deiktinę referenciją egocentriškai. 144

145 III. SVETIMŲ KALBŲ MOKYMAS / FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING 145

146 146

147 Landeskunde der deutschsprachigen Länder im virtuellen Daf-Unterricht Laimutė Dantienė, Irena Sagaitienė, Nijolė Slaminskienė Abstract Mykolas Romeris Universität, 20 Ateities St., 2057 Vilnius, Lithuania, The authors of this paper taught German to students and teachers at Mykolas Romeris University for 4 terms at 3 levels (beginners, pre-intermediate, intermediate) in the framework of the Project The Use of Innovative Methods in Teaching Foreign Languages at Mykolas Romeris University. The target groups consisted of 15 people. Teaching was conducted in a digital language laboratory Sanako Lab 300. Addressing the study theme Understanding of German speaking countries the authors introduce a lot of interesting internet resources, emphasize a changed teacher s role as well as unconventional possibilities of the Internet and digital language laboratory Sanako Lab 300. Certain conclusions are drawn on the advantages and disadvantages of teaching the German language in virtual environment. Key-words: landeskundliches Lernen, virtueller Lernraum, digitales Sprachlabor Sanako 300, innovativer Fremdsprachenunterricht, computergestützter Sprachunterricht, Einsatzmöglichkeiten des Internet, praktische Links. EINLEITUNG Die Autorinnen, die im Rahmen des Projekts Die Anwendung von innovativen Maßnahmen und Methoden im Prozess des Fremdsprachenunterrichts an der Mykolas Romeris Universität im digitalen Sprachlabor Sanako Lab 300 vom Herbst 2006 bis zum Frühjahr 2008 als Lehrkräfte erfolgreich gearbeitet haben, berichten im vorliegenden Beitrag anhand ihrer im Laufe von 4 Semestern gesammelten Erfahrung von den Möglichkeiten der Nutzung des Internets für die Gestaltung eines computergestützten DaF-Unterrichts. Fest überzeugt davon, dass Landeskunde als wesentlicher Lernbereich selbstverständlich zum Fremdsprachenunterricht gehört, konzentrieren sie sich in ihrem Beitrag auf die Benutzung des Internets als Informationsquelle im landeskundlichen DaF-Unterricht. Im landeskundlichen Bereich stellt das Internet eine besonders relevante und attraktive Informationsquelle dar. Aufgrund eigener Arbeitserfahrung mit dem interaktiven Stoff empfehlen die Autorinnen einige Links für das Unterrichtsthema Landeskunde. 147

148 Am Beispiel des Beitragsthemas Landeskunde deutschsprachiger Länder im virtuellen DaF-Unterricht wird vorgestellt, wie das Medium Internet in einem digitalen Sprachlabor zur Unterstützung und Gestaltung des modernen Fremdsprachenunterrichts genutzt werden kann. Das multimediale Sprachlabor Sanako Lab 300 hat sich in dieser Hinsicht als geeignet und äußerst erfolgreich erwiesen. Mittels der Medien Computer und Internet konnte man im virtuellen Unterrichtsraum vieles leisten. Verwirklicht wurden fremdsprachendidaktische Anforderungen wie Einsatz neuer Medien (1), Landeskundevermittlung bzw. interkulturelles Lernen (2), Lernerorientierung (3), Gruppenarbeit (4) und autonomes Lernen (5). In den Unterrichtsstunden wurden die Chancen und Perspektiven genutzt, die das Internet für die Gestaltung des Fremdsprachenunterrichts bringt, vor allem die Möglichkeit des Internets als Informationsquelle. Der Computer wurde dabei als Mittel zum anzustrebenden Ziel angesehen. Im Beitrag wird sowohl auf Vorteile als auch auf Nachteile des innovativen Sprachlernens hingewiesen, die bei der Anwendung des Internets im DaF-Unterricht beobachtet wurden. Die Autorinnen weisen u. a. auf die zahlreichen Schwierigkeiten hin, die der Sprachlehrer bei der Arbeit im digitalen Sprachlabor bewältigen muss. Es wird betont, dass anhand der Medien Computer und Internet der Lehrende nicht nur über den Inhalt, sondern auch über die Methode des computergestützten Fremdsprachenunterrichts zu entscheiden hat. Erörtert wird auch die durch die Integration vom Web veränderte Rolle des Lehrenden bei der Auswahl und dem Aufarbeiten des landeskundlichen Stoffes. Vor- und Nachteile des computergestützten Fremdsprachenunterrichts, die im Beitrag angeführt werden, widerspiegeln die infolge der Arbeit im Sprachlabor Sanako Lab 300 herausgebildete Meinung der Kursteilnehmer/innen (der Lernenden) und deren Betreuer/innen (der Lehrenden). Angaben entstammen den Fragebogen, die nach jeder 50stündigen Unterrichtsetappe (25 Doppelstunden X 4) auszufüllen waren. Laut Ergebnissen der schriftlichen Befragung weist der computergestützte Sprachunterricht bedeutend mehr Vorteile als Nachteile auf. Die Deutschkurse für Lernergruppen mit unterschiedlichem Sprachkenntnisniveau (die Gruppe ohne Vorkenntnisse der deutschen Sprache, die mit geringen Deutschkenntnissen und die Fortgeschrittenengruppe) fanden in einem Raum statt, in dem die lehrende Person und jede/r der 15 Lernenden einen Computer mit Internetanschluss zur Verfügung hatten und sowohl on-line als auch off-line arbeiten konnten. Der ganze Lernprozess wurde durch Sanako Lab 300 gesteuert. 1. VIRTUELLER DAF-UNTERRICHT Der alltägliche Umgang mit Computer und Internet wird zunehmend zur Selbstverständlichkeit. Diese Medien sind durch ihre universalen Einsatzmöglichkeiten sehr vielfältig zu benutzen. Durch die Gestaltung eines abwechslungsreichen und attraktiven Fremdsprachenunterrichts mit Einbeziehung moderner Medien eröffnen sich neue Chancen für die Vermittlung von Fremdsprachenkompetenz. Das Internet, das von den 148

149 Autorinnen vor allem als kreatives Werkzeug und Lernmaterial betrachtet wird (die Kommunikationsfunktion des Internets wird in diesem Beitrag nicht behandelt), gilt zurzeit zu Recht als eines der interessantesten neuen Medien. Das Internet stellt eine wichtige und nicht mehr wegzudenkende Informationsquelle dar. Die Möglichkeiten der Recherche im Internet sind beinahe unbegrenzt. Das Internet bietet Zugang zu Informationsangeboten von Ländern und Städten, politischen Parteien und anderen Organisationen, enzyklopädischen Nachschlagewerken und elektronischen Ausgaben deutschsprachiger Zeitschriften und Zeitungen, Radio- und Fernsehstationen. Über das WWW kann man schnell und dynamisch aktuelle authentische Informationen suchen und abrufen. Die Autorinnen halten das Einfügen des Internets als zusätzlicher Quelle für Informationen und Aktivitäten in den herkömmlichen Fremdsprachenunterricht für besonders angemessen, wenn das Lernziel nicht nur auf die sprachliche Kompetenz beschränkt, sondern auch auf landeskundliche, interkulturelle Lernziele erweitert wird, denn landeskundliche Materialien, die in den Lehrbüchern behandelt werden, veralten schnell. 2. WWW ALS INFORMATIONSQUELLE FÜR LEHRENDE UND LERNENDE Das Internet verstehen die Autorinnen des Beitrags nicht als Ersatz für den traditionellen DaF-Unterricht, sondern als eine ausgezeichnete Informationsquelle für die Ergänzung und Bereicherung des Fremdsprachenunterrichts. Das Netz wird zum vertrauten Vermittler von Faktwissen sowohl für die Sprachlehrenden, als auch für die Sprachlernenden. Im Bereich der Landeskunde, die ein unverzichtbarer Teil des Fremdsprachenunterrichts ist, stellt es eine besonders wichtige und leicht zugängliche Informationsquelle dar. Man hat Zugriff auf eine unendliche Fülle von authentischen landeskundlichen Informationen, die der Lehrende sinnvoll in den Unterricht zu integrieren hat. Als Quelle für landeskundliche Informationen könnte das gesamte deutschsprachige Angebot im WWW genutzt werden. Deutschsprachige Radiostationen, die über das Internet gehört werden und den Lernenden das Hören von authentischer, realer Sprache ermöglichen, bieten zusätzliche bzw. erweiternde landeskundliche Informationen über Deutschland, Österreich, Liechtenstein oder die Schweiz. Das Internet ist wie kein anderes Medium geeignet, Unterrichtsmaterialien in praktisch unbegrenzter Menge den Lernenden zur Verfügung zu stellen. Die Verwendung des WWW ermöglicht den Erwerb und die Erweiterung der Sprachkenntnisse durch authentisches und meistens aktuelles landeskundliches Material. Durch interessante aktuelle Informationen über Land und Leute der Zielsprache wird die Motivation erhöht, die Zielsprache (im behandelten Fall das Deutsch) zu erlernen. Landeskunde sollte Hintergrundinformationen liefern, die zum besseren Verstehen von Äußerungen, Verhalten der Menschen und von Texten jeder Art beitragen und bestehende Vorurteile verändern. ( php/landeskunde) 149

150 3. DIE ROLLE DES LEHRENDEN BEI DER AUSWAHL UND DEM AUFARBEITEN DES LANDESKUNDLICHEN STOFFES FÜR DEN COMPUTERGESTÜTZTEN DAF-UNTERRICHT Der Unterricht mit neuen Medien unterscheidet sich in vielen Dingen vom traditionellen Unterricht. Durch das computergestützte Deutschlernen und die Integration vom Web verändern sich die Rolle und die Aufgaben des Lehrenden, der nicht mehr Wissensvermittler ist, sondern als Lehrberater dem Lernenden beisteht. Der Computer muss nun als Mittel zum Zweck verstanden werden. Dem Lehrenden dient das Netz mit einer Vielzahl von Quellen und Angeboten aktueller originalsprachlicher Texte, einem riesigen Angebot an Lehr- und Lernmaterialien unterschiedlicher Anbieter als optimales Hilfsmittel zur Unterrichtsvorbereitung. Bei der Vorbereitung zum Unterricht im Computerraum geht es ihm im Wesentlichen darum, die angebotenen Informationen sinnvoll in den Unterricht zu intergrieren. Die Vorbereitung zum DaF-Unterricht, der zugleich Landeskundeunterricht ist, da in Themen, Texten und dem Wortschatz landeskundliche Informationen enthalten sind, bekommt neue Dimensionen. Bei der Auswahl der Lehrmaterialien muss der Lehrende selbst viel im Web surfen, nach interessanten Angeboten suchen und ständig die Entwicklung des Internets verfolgen. Von der Lehrperson müssen bestimmte zu speziellen Registern oder Leitseiten führende Links ausgewählt und anschließend auf eigenen Web-Seiten zusammengestellt werden. Diese Links sind regelmäßig zu überprüfen und gegebenenfalls zu aktualisieren. Da die Fülle an kostenfreien Web-Informationen kaum übersehbar ist, muss der Unterrichtsstoff besonders sorgfältig ausgewählt werden, damit er den Lernern interessant, verständlich vorkommt und nutzbringend ist. Bei der Auswahl des landeskundlichen Stoffes müssen Interessen, Bedürfnisse und sprachliches Kenntnisniveau der jeweiligen Lerner berücksichtigt werden. Die Sprachlerner dürfen nicht mit den beschafften Informationen alleine gelassen werden. Beim Aufarbeiten bezogener Daten muss der Sprachlehrer mithelfen. Der Unterrichtende muss den Weg navigieren und erst dann den Lernenden die Startseite angeben, damit diese erfolgreich experimentieren und ihr eigenes Interesse entwickeln können. Die Aufgaben für die Lernenden müssen präzise definiert werden und deren fremdsprachlichen Kenntnissen richtig entsprechen. Dem Sprachlehrer steht zu, anhand der Medien Computer und Internet sowohl den Inhalt als auch die Methode des computergestützten Fremdsprachenunterrichts zu entscheiden. Eine sinnvolle Nutzung des Mediums Internet für die Unterrichtsvorbereitung und gestaltung trägt zum Erfolg des innovativen Sprachunterrichts bei. 4. EINSATZ PRAKTISCHER LINKS IM DAF-UNTERRICHT Auf den Webseiten können die Internetnutzer praktische Links finden, die direkt im DaF-Unterricht als Lehrmaterialien sowie als Hilfsmittel bei der selbstständigen 150

151 Arbeit der Lernenden zu verwenden sind. Der Zugriff auf das WWW konkreter Links überlässt die Gestaltung des Unterrichts der Phantasie der Lehrperson. Es gibt eine unendliche Fülle von Links für landeskundliche Informationen. Im vorliegenden Beitrag werden nur einige Links für das Unterrichtsthema Landeskunde angeführt, die nach der Einschätzung der Autorinnen interessant und nützlich sind und auch von den DaF-Lernern günstig beurteilt werden. Allen Deutschlehrenden, die bereit sind, neue Medien im Unterricht einzusetzen, und Lust haben, ihren Unterricht durch eigenständiges Online-Lernen der Teilnehmer abwechslungsreicher zu gestalten, möchten die Autorinnen anhand ihrer praktischen Erfahrung den spanischen Anbieter Deutschlernnet ( empfehlen, der auf den Webseiten den kursbegleitenden kostenlosen Lehrstoff (neben Lesetexten auch Audiofiles) liefert. Bei DeutschLern.net kann man Materialien für Anfänger, Grundstufe und Fortgeschrittene finden. Angeboten werden aktuelle interaktive Aufgaben für die selbstständige Arbeit der Lerner sowie fertige Aufgaben mit Antworten zur Selbstkontrolle, welche der Lehrende bei der Vorbereitung zum DaF-Unterricht einbeziehen kann. Alle Texte sind für den Unterricht Deutsch als Fremdsprache inhaltlich und aufgabentechnisch sehr gut 151

152 vorbereitet. Durch die Texte zu verschiedensten landeskundlichen Themen bekommt der Lernende die Möglichkeit, sich über aktuelle Themen zu informieren, den wichtigsten Wortschatz und das Hörverstehen zu üben. Die Aufgaben zur Grammatik und zum Lesen können beim Lernen am Computer unverzüglich überprüft werden. Dienstags und freitags veröffentlicht DeutschLern.net in Kooperation mit der Redaktion Deutschkurse der Deutschen Welle unter URL (Adresse der Internetseite) Aufgaben zum Hörverstehen zu aktuellen Themen mit Vokabelhilfen der Deutschen Welle. Beim Thema der Woche (Video-Thema) besteht eine günstige Möglichkeit, mit Videos von der Deutschen Welle und Übungen zum Hörverstehen mit aktuellen Themen aus den Nachrichten Deutsch zu lernen. Im Weblog von DeutschLern.net werden interessierte Internetnutzer immer auf dem Laufenden über Neuigkeiten auf der Webseite gehalten. Aufgrund eigener Arbeitserfahrung im virtuellen Lernraum mit dem interaktiven Stoff zum Thema Deutschlernreise, Adresse der Webseite de/, konnte von den Autorinnen des Beitrags festgestellt werden, dass die Lerner das angebotene Material interessant und attraktiv fanden und schon am Anfang der Beschäftigung mit der interaktiven Aufgabe Lust bekamen, sich auf die Entdeckungsreise durch die Kultur und die Welt der Zielsprache Deutsch zu begeben. Die virtuelle Reise für die fortgeschrittenen Lernenden, die etwa das Niveau B1 nach dem Europäischen Referenzrahmen erlangt haben sollten, beginnt am Flughafen: Der durch die Fotos und Erklärungen unterstützte Lehrstoff ist sehr attraktiv. Der Lernende wird in eine subjektive Rolle versetzt, indem er aufgrund seiner eigenen Erfahrung und der Kenntnis der Flughafenwelt die Aufgaben lösen muss. Die virtuelle Reise durch Deutschland umfasst 20 Stationen und bei jeder Station finden die Lerner eine neue Aufgabe zum Thema. Es geht um praktische Sprachkenntnisse einerseits und um Informationen über Land und Leute andererseits. (Wenn man beispielsweise in einem fremden Land ankommt, kann es leicht passieren, dass man etwas falsch macht. Damit der Lerner zukünftig beim Essen im Reiseland Deutschland eine eventuelle peinliche Situation vermeiden kann, stehen für ihn in folgender grammatischer Übung einige Verhaltensregeln zur Verfügung: ( Durch die Höraufgabe auf der Webseite werden die Lerner mit dem Potsdamer Platz bekannt gemacht, und durch die Höraufgabe auf machen sie einen Spaziergang die Berliner Mauer entlang. Die Fahrt von Berlin nach Wolfsburg wird möglich durch den Hörtext auf Eine virtuelle Reise in den Harz auf 152

153 ist auch spannend, und die Zeit am Computer vergeht sehr schnell. Den Hörtext über die Walpurgisnacht (mit Optionen zusammengestellt) kann sich der Lerner einige Male anhören: fremdsprache.php?id=3211. Zu empfehlen ist auch der Weihnachtskrimi, der von DeutschLern.net zu Weihnachten 2007 veröffentlicht wurde. Dieses interaktive Hörbuch umfasst 24 Episoden mit rund zwei Minuten Audio und einer interaktiven Aufgabe. MP3-Dateien können auch heruntergeladen oder als Podcast unterwegs gehört werden. Die Audioqualität im Sprachlabor Sanako Lab 300 ist hervorragend. Es besteht auch eine günstige Möglichkeit zur Überprüfung der Audioarbeit der Lernenden. Zugleich können auch die Darstellungen auf allen Bildschirmen eingesehen werden. Die vorliegenden Unterrichtsmaterialien des Deutschlern.net (zu beliebigem Thema) tragen durch ihre Attraktivität zur Vermittlung eines lebendigen Deutschland- Bildes bei. Die erwähnten Aufgaben sind im Wesentlichen darauf ausgerichtet, dass der Lerner von dem Lehrer unabhängig arbeiten kann. Viele sprachpraktische Übungen sind auch auf den Netzseiten von Cafe Deutsch zu finden, die für den DaF-Unterricht gut geeignet sind. Mini-Dialoge, landeskundliche Beiträge, Lieder, Gedichte, Geschichten sollen dabei helfen, partnerweise oder in Gruppen miteinander ins Gespräch zu kommen. Das Thema Landeskunde findet man unter der Internetadresse Auf dieser Netzseite werden alle deutschen Bundesländer auf interessanteste Weise vorgestellt: durch Text, Wortschatzaufgaben, Bilder, Gesprächsthemen, Lückenrätsel u. ä. Die praxiserprobten Seiten des Internet-Portals für deutsche Grammatik daf-portal.de/uebungen/index.php?viewcat=2 machen die trockene, oft schwer verständliche deutsche Grammatik leichter zugänglich, unterhaltsam und interessant. Schon Mark Twain hat auf die Schwierigkeit der deutschen Sprache und besonders deren Grammatik hingewiesen: Wer nie Deutsch gelernt hat, macht sich keinen Begriff, wie verwirrend diese Sprache ist. Es gibt ganz gewiss keine andere Sprache, die so unordentlich und systemlos daherkommt und dermaßen jedem Zugriff entschlüpft. Aufs hilfloseste wird man in ihr hin und her geschwenkt, und wenn man glaubt, man habe endlich eine Regel zu fassen bekommen, die festen Boden zum Verschnaufen im tosenden Aufruhr der zehn Redeteile verspricht, blättert man um und liest: Der Lernende merke sich die folgenden Ausnahmen:... Die Autorinnen finden noch einige weitere Netzseiten für besonders empfehlenswert: Auf bietet der Hueber-Verlag die nach Themen und Niveaustufen geordneten Übungsmaterialien zur Landeskunde. Auf dem Portal werden die Lehrmaterialien zur Verfügung gestellt, die als PDF-Materialien heruntergeladen und sofort im Unterricht verwendet werden können. Die auf 153

154 de/dw/0,2142,1644,00.html dargebotenen authentischen Videos, Bildergalerien und Hörtexte vermitteln ein anschauliches Bild des Lebens in Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz. Jetzt online ( bei dem der Lerner im Vordergrund steht, bietet eine Fülle von Texten mit authentischen Aufgaben. Die inhaltlich und aufgabentechnisch gut aufbereiteten Seiten von Jetzt online bedürfen aber einer Anleitung und Betreuung von Lehrpersonen. Den fortgeschrittenen Deutsch-Lernenden wird ein Leitfaden zur Verfügung gestellt, wie sie selbstständig vor allem ihre Lesekompetenz auffrischen und vertiefen können. Es werden Ratschläge und konkrete Weisungen gegeben, wie man sich am besten mit dem vorhandenen Angebot auseinandersetzt. Von den Interessierten, die schon mindestens 100 Stunden deutsch gelernt haben müssen, wird Selbstdisziplin gefordert und hohe Motivation vorausgesetzt. Bei der Auswahl von Quellen und Angeboten an interaktiven landeskundlichen Lehr- sowie Lernmaterialien wurde von den Autorinnen des vorliegenden Beitrags die Tatsache berücksichtigt, dass das Lernen immer ein Prozess ist, der vom Lerner selbst geleitet und gewollt werden muss und dass nie alles gelernt und gelehrt werden kann. Die Lernmotivationen sollen über die Unterrichtsstunde hinaus erhalten bleiben, damit die Lerner die angeeigneten Kenntnisse weiterentwickeln wollen und können. Mit der Präsentation und dem Kommentieren der aufgeführten Materialiensammlung wird beabsichtigt, das Unterrichtsthema Landeskunde zu veranschaulichen. Die präsentierten WWW-Seiten sind ein gutes Beispiel für die Integration der Landeskunde als eines unentbehrlichen Bestandteiles in den computergestützten Fremdsprachenunterricht. 5. VOR- UND NACHTEILE EINES COMPUTERGESTÜTZTEN DEUTSCHUNTERRICHTS Zu den Vorteilen, die laut Ergebnissen des innovativen Fremdsprachenunterrichts im Sprachlabor Sanako Lab 300 der computergestützte Sprachunterricht aufweist, zählen: 1) Computer und Internet bieten dem Lernenden den evidenten Vorteil, beliebig oft, sehr schnell und ziemlich leicht auf Informationsfülle zu unterschiedlichsten Unterrichtsthemen, auf authentisches Unterrichtsmaterial zuzugreifen. 2) Durch WWW-Recherchen können Lehrbuchthemen aktualisiert und ergänzt werden. Der Zugang zu aktuellen Inhalten, die in den traditionellen Lehrmitteln noch nicht aufgenommen werden konnten, ermöglicht den Ausbau der Sprachkenntnisse und Fertigkeiten der Lerner. 3) Mit den durch Internet beschafften aktuellen Informationen werden die Lernenden im virtuellen Lernraum nicht alleine gelassen: der Lehrende steht ihnen jederzeit als Beistand zur Verfügung. 4) Medium Computer entwickelt bei den Lernenden Kooperationsfähigkeit und Kreativität und bietet ihnen neue Möglichkeiten zum Kontakt mit der Zielsprache in jedem von ihnen gewünschten thematischen Bereich und zur Sprachverwendung. 154

155 5) Jeder im virtuellen Raum Lernende kann seinen Schwerpunkt individuell setzen, selbstbestimmt und autonom am zu behandelnden Thema arbeiten, er kann sich aber auch durch Partnerschaftsarbeit mit dem Unterrichtsinhalt auseinandersetzen. 6) Der virtuelle Lernraum ermöglicht den Lernenden, ihr eigenes Tempo zu verfolgen und individuelle Wissenslücken zu füllen. 7) Auch für die Lehrkräfte bietet sich das WWW als reiche Quelle zur Beschaffung des Materials an. Ohne großen Aufwand können sie sich ständig mit aktuellstem Lehrstoff zu verschiedensten (landeskundlichen) Themen versorgen und sich in allen Bereichen der Zielsprache und kultur auf dem Laufenden halten. 8) Der Lehrende hat die Möglichkeit, der jeweiligen Gruppe von Lernenden den interaktiven Unterrichtsstoff individuell anzupassen, was besonders aktuell ist, wenn Sprachkenntnisse der Kursteilnehmer unterschiedlich sind. 9) Der virtuelle Unterrichtsraum ermöglicht dem Lehrenden die methodische Flexibilität bei der Unterrichtsgestaltung. 10) Bei der Vermittlung landeskundlicher Informationen erlaubt das Internet, auf vielfältige Interessen und Vorlieben der Lernenden einzugehen. 11) Mit Hilfe des angeboteten interaktiven Materials bekommen die Lernenden Lust, mehr zu lesen und sich auf Entdeckungsreise durch die Kultur und die Welt der Zielsprache zu begeben. Beim computergestützten Lehren und Lernen (E-Learning) sind allerdings auch unverkennbare Nachteile zu erkennen. In diesem Zusammenhang möchten die Autorinnen anschließend einige kritische Punkte anführen, die bei der Verwendung des Internets im Unterricht beobachtet wurden: 1) Ein sorgfältig geplanter Unterricht mit dem Medium Internet kann scheitern, wenn das Computersystem abstürzt, das Computerprogramm zusammenbricht oder es keinen Internetanschluss gibt. (Die Ursachen des Scheiterns tragen meistens technischen Charakter.) 2) Den Unterricht verhindern manchmal die zu langen Wartezeiten, bis der aktuelle Text abgerufen wird. 3) Die Vorbereitung einer computergestützten Unterrichtseinheit nimmt viel mehr Zeit in Anspruch im Vergleich mit der traditionellen. (Dieser Nachteil trifft nur den Lehrenden, nicht den Lernenden.) 4) Die Konzeption einer Unterrichtsreihe bedeutet für den Lehrenden in der Regel eine hohe zeitliche Belastung. 5) Durch die nötige intensive Betreuung der Lernenden (auch außerhalb der Unterrichtsstunden) wird der Lehrende stark belastet. 6) Im Internet findet sich oft eine Fülle von Angeboten und Informationen, deren Unübersichtlichkeit eine Enttäuschung der Lernenden verursacht. In diesem Zusammenhang muss es hervorgehoben werden, dass durch den Einsatz des digitalen Sprachlabors Sanako Lab 300 dieser offensichtliche Nachteil leicht zu beseitigen ist, nämlich: 155

156 Der Lehrende hat im Sprachlabor Sanako Lab 300 die Möglichkeit, die Arbeit zu steuern, indem er einstellt, wie die Lernenden das Internet zu nutzen haben, und dabei vorgibt, auf welchen Seiten sie sich bewegen dürfen. So können nur die wichtigsten Informationen im Netz genutzt werden, ohne dass die Lernenden die Web-Seiten abrufen, die für den Sprachunterricht nicht vorgesehen worden sind. FAZIT Durch die Verknüpfung vieler Computer zu Netzwerken entsteht im Sprachlabor Sanako Lab 300 ein neuartiger virtueller Lernraum, der beim landeskundlichen Sprachlernen sehr erfolgreich für Kommunikation und Interaktion genutzt werden kann und auch andere spezifische Lernaktivitäten ermöglicht. In solchem vernetzten Computerraum hat jeder am Rechner sitzende Teilnehmer von seinem Computer aus einen Internetzugang und zugleich die Möglichkeit des kooperativen Lernens, unterstützt von einer betreuenden Lehrkraft. Für Personen, die noch nicht in einem virtuellen Lernraum gelehrt und gelernt haben, scheint diese Interaktionsform schwer nachvollziehbar zu sein. Die Möglichkeiten, die sich beim Deutschlehren und -lernen im digitalen Sprachlabor Sanako Lab 300 durch den Einsatz des Internets eröffnet haben, haben nicht nur die Lehrenden, sondern auch die Lernenden fasziniert, die anhand der innovativen Methode das Deutsch als zweite Fremdsprache erlernen oder die vorhandenen Deutschkenntnisse im landeskundlichen Bereich erweitern bzw. vertiefen wollten. Von vielen Beteiligten wurde die Meinung geäußert, dass das Fremdsprachenlernen in und mit Netz die traditionell orientierten Bildungsvorstellungen überholt. Aus der bei der Arbeit im digitalen Sprachlabor im Laufe der vier Semester gesammelten Erfahrung könnten folgende Schlussfolgerungen gezogen werden: - Sanako Lab 300 ist ein bewährtes und äußerst erfolgreiches multimediales Sprachlabor, das gleichzeitig volle dynamische multimediale Unterstützung für den Fremdsprachenunterricht bietet. - Durch die Nutzung der Medien Computer und Internet eröffnen sich neue und günstige Wege des Fremdsprachenlernens und der Aneignung von Wissen im fremdsprachlichen Bereich. - Internetaktivitäten mit einer Lernergruppe im DaF-Unterricht müssen methodisch geplant werden, um zu sinnvollen Ergebnissen zu gelangen. - Da viele Texte im WWW schwierig für die Lernenden (besonders für Anfänger) sind und sie enttäuschen können, sollen die aus dem Internet bezogenen aktuellen authentischen Daten während des Sprachunterrichts mit Hilfe des Lehrenden aufgearbeitet werden. Die Lerner dürfen nicht mit den beschafften Informationen alleine gelassen werden. - Das Verhältnis zwischen dem Lernenden und dem Lehrenden ändert sich im computergestützten Fremdsprachenunterricht generell: der Lehrende wird aus einem herkömmlichen Wissensvermittler zu einem unentbehrlichen Lernberater. 156

157 - Auch wenn das Internet kein Wissen vermitteln kann, sondern nur die Information, dürfte es im modernen Fremdsprachenunterricht nicht fehlen, denn dieses Medium als weltumfassendes Netzwerk bietet für den Sprachunterricht vor allem durch das World Wide Web eine nahezu unerschöpfliche Quelle landeskundlicher, kultureller und anderer nützlicher Informationen. - Landeskunde ist ein wichtiger und unentbehrlicher Bestandteil im Fremdsprachenunterricht, also auch für Deutsch als Fremdsprache. Sie wurde ebenfalls zu einem integrierten Bestandteil des computergestützten DaF-Unterrichts. Beim Deutschlehren und -lernen im virtuellen Sprachlabor Sanako Lab 300 ging es um landeskundliche Informationen über die einzelnen deutschsprachigen Länder, also namentlich Deutschland, Österreich, die Schweiz, Liechtenstein bzw. Luxemburg. Literaturverzeichnis 1. Audio-visuelle Medien; online: de/rubriken/medien-ueber- deutschland/audio-visuelle-medien.html (tikrinta ) 2. DeutschLern.net: Deutsch als Fremdsprache - Deutsch lernen online mit interaktiven Übungen: (tikrinta ) 3. Einsatzmöglichkeiten des Internet im DaF-Unterricht; online: (tikrinta ) 4. Goethe-Institut-Portale; online: htm# (tikrinta ) 5. Goethe Institut: Lernen mit digitalen Medien; online: mat/ldm/ deindex.htm ( ) 6. Goethe Institut: Lernen in und mit Netzen; online: odyssee/ lehrer/methodik.htm ( ) 7. Methoden des Fremdsprachenunterrichts, online: im_ Fremdsprachenunterricht ( ) 8. Der Weg: Portal für Deutschlernende: html ( ) 9. Über die Landeskunde im Unterricht online: php/landeskunde ( ) 10. Über das virtuelle Klassenzimmer online: Klassenzimmer ( ) 11. Boeckmann, Klaus-Börge, Internet im DaF-Unterricht?! Information, Interaktion, Kommunikation, 2003; online: boerge.boeckmann/weblv/ neuemedien/arbeitlackinger.pdf ( ) 12. Diepold, Peter, Interaktive Projekte im Internet; online: publikation/drabe.html ( ) 13. Engler, Lele-Rose, Deutsch lernen über das Internet; online: 9_01/Engler.html ( ) 14. Ha, Suguen: Sprach-und Landeskundeunterricht mit Interneteinsatz, 2001; online: german.or.kr/arbeit/6-ha.doc ( ) 157

158 15. Nowak, Wojciech: Einsatzmöglichkeiten des Internet im DaF-Unterricht; online: ( ) 16. Stöger, Claudia: Landeskunde mit neuen Medien Beispiel der Möglichkeiten im Unterricht an Hand der Stadt Wien, 2003; online: klaus- boerge.boeckmann/weblv/neuemedien/arbeitstoeger.doc ( ) 17. Weiermann, Stefan L.: Neue Medien-Neue Chancen? Überlegungen zur Vermittlung von Fremdsprachenkompetenz, 2000; online: neuemedien.htm ( ) 18. Yoshida, Mitsunobu: Das Internet als kreatives Forum innerhalb und außerhalb des Deutschunterrichts, 1999; online: pdf ( ) Santrauka Vokiškai kalbančių šalių pažinimas mokant/is vokiečių kalbos virtualioje aplinkoje Laimutė Dantienė, Irena Sagaitienė, Nijolė Slaminskienė Straipsnio autorės 4 semestrus 3 lygiais (pradinis, silpnai pažengusiųjų ir pažengusiųjų) mokė Mykolo Romerio universiteto studentų ir dėstytojų grupes (po 15 žmonių) vokiečių kalbos pagal projektą Inovatyvių priemonių ir metodų taikymas užsienio kalbų mokymuose Mykolo Romerio universitete. Mokymai vyko skaitmeninėje kalbų mokymo laboratorijoje Sanako 300, panaudojant pažangiausias kalbų mokymo technologijas. Nagrinėdamos temą Vokiškai kalbančių šalių pažinimas autorės pateikia daug įdomių internetinių šaltinių, pabrėžia pasikeitusį mokytojo vaidmenį, interneto bei skaitmeninės mokymo laboratorijos Sanako 300 netradicines galimybes. Iš sukauptos patirties autorės daro išvadas apie vokiečių kalbos mokymo virtualioje aplinkoje privalumus ir trūkumus. 158

159 Projektvorstellung Entwicklung eines Brettspiels zur Vermittlung interkultureller Fähigkeiten in der (Wirtschafts-) Kommunikation am Beispiel Deutschland-Polen Claudia Finner, Britta Stöckmann DAAD, Warsaw School of Economics, Al. Niepodległości 162, Warszawa, Poland, DAAD, Institute of Applied Linguistics, Adam Mickiewicz University, ul. 28 Czerwca 1956, nr 198, Poznan, Poland, Abstract The article presents the joint German and Polish project at Poznan Adam Mickiewicz University, which was carried out by university teachers of intercultural communication. The Project is aimed at creating game based exercises to develop intercultural abilities in the field of economical communication. Mastering of grammar and lexis, on the one hand, and acquiring country study knowledge, on the other hand, is not enough to orient successfully in the globalised world, react or act adequately in professional and everyday situations. Competence of intercultural communication becomes an essential part of business and private life. The work group creates a game, which prepares student for intended visit abroad, describe specific situations, in which they may find themselves in their professional and everyday life. These situations always involve two persons, whose behaviour is based on peculiarities of their cultures and characters. Taking into account how they evaluate themselves and the partner in a particular situation the communication may be successful or unsuccessful. As far as it is joint German and Polish project the most common examples are taken from Germany and Poland. However, the idea and mechanism of a game can be applied to other nationalities and cultures as well. Key-words: Spieleprojekt, interkulturelle Kompetenz, Kommunikation, spielerisches Übungsmaterial EINLEITUNG Im Folgenden soll ein derzeit in polnisch-deutscher Zusammenarbeit entstehendes Projekt zur Entwicklung spielerischen Übungsmaterials im Bereich der interkulturellen (Wirtschafts-)Kommunikation kurz umrissen werden. Das Team, das sich diesem Pro- 159

160 jektziel verschrieben hat, besteht neben den beiden oben erwähnten Referentinnen aus Dr. Joanna Andrzejewska-Kwiatkowska, die am Institut für Angewandte Linguistik der Adam-Mickiewicz-Universität Poznan u.a. im Bereich Interkulturelle Kommunikation lehrt, sowie Joanna Kic-Drgas, die aktuell an selbigem Institut promoviert. Es zeigt sich immer wieder, dass der Erwerb von Grammatik und Wortschatz zusammen mit Landeskunde allein nicht ausreicht, um sich in der immer weiter globalisierenden Welt nicht nur zurecht finden zu können, sondern auch in beruflichen und alltäglichen Situationen adäquat zu agieren oder zu reagieren. Verstärkt gefragt ist eine interkulturelle Kompetenz im Geschäfts- und Privatleben. Die theoretischen Definitionen von interkultureller Kompetenz sind zahlreich, und für praktische Übungen gibt es Aufgabenblätter in Arbeitsbüchern und Fallstudien, wie man sich in welchem Land in welcher Situation seinem Gegenüber entsprechend richtig zu verhalten hat. Mit dem Spieleprojekt möchte die Arbeitsgruppe jedoch dieses richtige Verhalten nicht einfach vorgeben, da einhellig die Meinung besteht, dass interkulturelle Kommunikation nicht überwiegend daraus bestehen sollte, dass die eine Seite versucht sich in die andere hinein zu versetzen und ihr alles recht zu machen, sondern dass interkulturelle Kommunikation aus dem Erkennen von Unterschieden besteht und aus der Bereitschaft dem Gegenüber näher zu kommen oder einen Kompromiss einzugehen, ohne seine eigene Identität zu verleugnen oder den eigenen Charakter verändern zu müssen. Es soll an dieser Stelle keine Zusammenfassung des gegenwärtigen Forschungsstandes gegeben, sondern ein an der Praxis orientiertes Projekt vorgestellt, Ideen angeregt und Ansichten gerne auch zur Diskussion gestellt werden. 1. INTERKULTURELLE KOMMUNIKATION IM UNTERRICHT UND IM ALLTAG Für den Unterricht erstellte Aufgaben und Übungen zur interkulturellen Kommunikation befassen sich häufig mit unterschiedlichen Situationen in einem Land, dessen Sprache gerade erlernt wird, und erläutern oft Unterschiede zu anderen Ländern oder Gesellschaften. Es werden Hinweise und Tipps gegeben, wie man sich in diesem Land benehmen sollte, um möglichst wenig aufzufallen oder sich möglichst stark zu integrieren. Aus eigener Unterrichtspraxis und eigenen Erfahrungen im Alltag u.a. in Ostasien haben Mitglieder der Projektgruppe allerdings auch erlebt, dass man dort von einem Europäer ein ganz anderes Verhalten erwartet bzw. nicht damit rechnet, dass er die Gepflogenheiten und Umgangsformen dieser Gesellschaft kennt und sich entsprechend verhält. So ist es eher amüsant zu beobachten, wenn sich z. B. europäische Ausländer in Japan noch japanischer verhalten als Einheimische und damit große Irritationen auslösen. Dieses Problem kann man in Europa jedoch als genau umgekehrt empfinden. Man ist optisch nicht als Ausländer auszumachen und in einem Land oder einer Stadt mit wenigen ausländischen Mitbürgern wird natürlich bei einem für Einheimische irritie- 160

161 renden Verhalten nicht damit gerechnet, dass es sich um interkulturelle Differenzen handelt. Oft wird bei nur geringen Sprachkenntnissen jedoch auch keine oder nur geringe interkulturelle Kommunikationsfähigkeit und Kompetenz erwartet. Allerdings wird umgekehrt mit einem höheren Sprachniveau auch eine bessere interkulturelle Kommunikationsfähigkeit nötig, egal ob im Alltag oder im Berufsleben, so dass das Kommunikationsziel nicht nur sprachlich erreicht werden kann. 2. PROJEKTIDEE Die Projektidee ist also aus der Notwendigkeit entstanden, im täglichen Unterricht Situationen darzustellen, in denen nicht nur interkulturelle Kompetenz, sondern auch das wechselseitige Agieren und Hineinversetzen in den Partner stattfinden soll. Konkreter bedeutet dies, dass die Arbeitsgruppe eine Aufgabe, also hier ein Spiel entwickeln wollte, das Studierende oder Expatriots auf einen Auslandsaufenthalt vorbereitet bzw. sie bei einem solchen unterstützt und ihnen Situationen veranschaulicht, auf die sie sowohl im Berufsleben als auch im Alltag treffen können. Es handelt sich dabei um kleine alltägliche Szenen, wie sie jederzeit im Privat- oder Berufsleben erlebt werden, auf die jedoch stets in irgendeiner Weise reagiert werden muss. Dabei sind immer zwei Personen beteiligt, die gemäß ihres kulturellen Hintergrundes sowie ihres persönlichen Charakters mit der gegebenen Situation umgehen, was es je nach dem, wie sie sich und den Gegenüber in der Situation einschätzen, zu geglückter oder misslungener Kommunikation führt. Da es sich um eine deutsch-polnische Kooperation handelt, wurden für dieses Projekt Deutschland und Polen exemplarisch gewählt, doch sollen die Idee und der Spielemechanismus später auch auf andere Nationalitäten bzw. Kulturen übertragbar sein. Bei diesem Spiel geht es darum, dass den zwei Spielern zunächst ein Charakter zugelost wird, dessen Charakterzüge und Eigenschaften sie jeweils annehmen müssen. Dann durchlaufen die Spieler so viele Spielstationen/Situationen, wie sie vorab festgelegt haben. Eine Situation besteht aus der Schilderung, in der sich die beiden Partner gerade befinden. Dazu gibt es je fünf Vorschläge für jede Seite, wie sie sich verhalten könnte. Der Spielmechanismus wird im Folgenden noch genauer vorgestellt. Die Idee, die hinter diesem Spiel steckt, ist es, sich mit der Problematik einer Situation auseinander zu setzen. Indem man sich zunächst bewusst macht, dass die Gegenseite anders reagieren könnte, als man es selbst erwartet, und dass zugleich die eigene Reaktion auf Befremden stoßen könnte, soll eine gewisse Sensibilität für die verbale und besonders nonverbale Kommunikation in einem internationalen Umfeld entwickelt werden. Durch den zugelosten Charakter wird es den Spielern leichter fallen, deutlich für ihr Verhalten Position zu beziehen. Gewinnen können beide Seiten das Spiel jedoch nur, wenn sie ihrem Charakter zwar so treu wie möglich bleiben, aber auch bereit sind, sich bis zu einem gewissen Grad auf den Anderen einzulassen und Kompromisse einzugehen. Es gewinnt schließlich jedoch die Person, der es gelungen ist, ihr Gegenüber besonders gut einzuschätzen, und die ihre Interessen dabei am besten vertreten hat. 161

162 Das Material ist so gestaltet, dass es sowohl mit Lehrer als auch ohne, zu zweit oder in größeren Gruppen eingesetzt werden kann. Auch die Durchführungsdauer kann frei gewählt werden, so dass es jede Lernergruppe ihren Bedürfnissen individuell anpassen kann. 3. SPIELAUFBAU An dieser Stelle soll ein Überblick darüber gegeben werden, wie das Spiel konkret aussehen soll, d.h. welches Spielmaterial benötigt wird und welche Spielregeln gelten. Zunächst ein Blick auf das Spielmaterial, ausgelegt für ein Zwei-Personen-Spiel: Es gibt einen prinzipiell unbegrenzten Satz Situationskarten, 18 Charakterkarten, 10 Nummernkarten, 2 Zählleisten und insgesamt 14 Marker (pro Spieler 6 Zählsteine, um gewonnene Punkte auf der eigenen Zählleiste zu markieren, sowie einen Tippstein, mit dem man jede Runde kennzeichnet, wie man seinen Gegenüber einschätzt). Beide Mitspieler erhalten jeweils eine Zählleiste mit 6 Zählsteinen und einem Tippstein sowie fünf Nummernkarten mit den Zahlen von 1 bis 5. Außerdem ziehen sie sich aus den nach Nationen gegliederten Charakterkarten ihren Charakter für diese Runde. D.h. der eine Mitspieler nimmt eine Karte vom polnischen Stapel, der andere vom deutschen. Die Charakterkarten sind zweisprachig gestaltet und nennen verschiedene Eigenarten, die den zu spielenden Charakter kennzeichnen mit anderen Worten: Man spielt niemals sich selbst, sondern schlüpft in eine bestimmte Rolle. Dies erleichtert, wie schon angedeutet, das ungehemmte Agieren und ist außerdem spieltechnisch notwendig, wenn zwei einander bereits vertraute Personen miteinander spielen, die andernfalls ihr Vorwissen über den anderen einfließen lassen würden. Das wichtigste Element allerdings sind die Situationen, in denen die Charaktere sich bewähren müssen: Diese werden auf den Situationskarten beschrieben, die ebenfalls zweisprachig gestaltet und zudem in vier Kategorien eingeteilt sind, aus denen man wählen und natürlich auch mischen kann: Es handelt sich um Polen in Deutschland Berufsleben, Deutsche in Polen Berufsleben, Polen in Deutschland Alltag und Deutsche in Polen Alltag. Auf der Vorderseite finden sich neben der Situationsbeschreibung immer je fünf mögliche Reaktionen der beiden beteiligten Vertreter verschiedener Nationen. Diese Reaktionsmöglichkeiten sind jeweils von 1 bis 5 durchnummeriert, was den Nummernkarten entspricht, die jeder Spieler auf der Hand hat. Auf der Rückseite der Situationskarte steht dann die Auswertung der Situation und zwar in der Art, dass die Nummern der jeweiligen Reaktionen den Farben Gelb, Rot, Lila, Blau und Grün zugeordnet werden. Außerdem steht hier in vielen Fällen eine Anmerkung, die allgemeine Hinweise interkultureller Art geben, welche sich auf die jeweilige Situation beziehen. Die Zuordnung der Farben entspricht dem, was man (z.t. stereotyp) dem Deutschen bzw. dem Polen an Eigenarten nachsagt. Es ergibt sich dabei ein Farbspektrum, das folgendermaßen aussieht: 162

163 Gelb = typisch polnisch Rot = eher polnisch Lila = unspezifisch / Kompromiss Blau = eher deutsch Grün = typisch deutsch Dasselbe Spektrum ist auf den Zählleisten abgebildet, und Farbfelder gibt es auch auf den Charakterkarten, auf denen sie die Einstellung der Person symbolisieren. Jeder Karte sind jeweils zwei Farben zugeordnet, die als Hauptfarbe den Charakter und als Nebenfarbe die Verhaltensmuster bestimmen. Das Spiel verläuft dann wie folgt: 1. Eine beliebige Anzahl zu spielender Situationskarten wird nach gewünschtem Themengebiet gewählt (oder beliebig gezogen) und bereit gelegt. 2. Die Spieler entscheiden sich, wer die Rolle des polnischen bzw. des deutschen Charakters übernimmt, und ziehen verdeckt eine der entsprechenden Charakterkarten. 3. Die erste Situation wird vorgelesen, wahlweise auf Deutsch oder Polnisch oder in beiden Sprachen (wodurch sich auch ein Sprachlerneffekt ergibt). Dann schauen sich die Spieler die für ihre Nationalität jeweils geltenden durchnummerierten fünf Reaktionsmöglichkeiten an und entscheiden sich für eine. Dazu legen sie verdeckt eine ihrer fünf Nummernkarten vor sich ab. Wenn die Spieler sich entschieden haben, werden beide Karten aufgedeckt. 4. Bevor man aber die Situationskarte umdreht, schaut man sich die Antwort des Gegenübers an und versucht einzuschätzen, welcher Farbe (also welcher Charaktereigenschaft) diese Antwort zugeordnet sein könnte. Dazu platziert man seinen Tippstein auf einer der fünf Farben auf der eigenen Zählleiste. 5. Die Situationskarte wird schließlich umgedreht, und die Auswertung erfolgt über die auf der Rückseite angegebene Zuordnung der Antworten zu den Farben der Zählleiste. 6. Auswertung der Situation: Die beiden Spieler vergleichen ihre Nummernkarten mit der Auflösung auf der Rückseite der Situationskarte und ordnen die von ihnen gewählte Nummer der entsprechenden Farbe zu. Diese wiederum vergleichen sie mit den Farben auf dem Spektrum, stellen fest, wie weit sie dort voneinander entfernt liegen und erhalten entsprechend Punkte oder Abzüge. Die genaue Punkteverteilung soll an dieser Stelle nicht im Detail erläutert werden. Es gilt jedoch, dass beide Spieler immer jeweils die gleiche positive oder negative Punktzahl wie der Partner erhalten, wenn auch meist für unterschiedliche Farben. Die höchste Punktzahl erreicht man natürlich, wenn die Antworten beider Partner derselben Farbe zugeordnet sind, was einer ganz klar gelungenen Kommunikation entspricht. Dies ist auch der einzige Fall, in dem beide Spieler denselben Farbmarker auf ihrer Zählleiste vorrücken. Alle anderen Farbkombinationen symbolisieren mehr oder minder geglückte (oder auch missglückte) Kommunikation, für welche die Spieler Punkte oder Abzüge in der jeweils für ihre Antwort geltenden Farbe erhalten. Die 163

164 meisten Minuspunkte kassiert man, wenn beide Gesprächspartner komplett aneinander vorbei kommunizieren also die Antworten in den Extrembereichen der Skala (Gelb und Grün) liegen. Abgesehen von der jeweiligen direkten Bewertung der Situation bekommt man jede Runde, in der man die Antwort des Mitspielers richtig eingeschätzt hat, einen Punkt, den man auf der Bonusleiste (10 Felder links auf der Zählleiste) markiert. Nach dem gleichen Muster werden alle ausgewählten Situationen durchgespielt und sofort nach jeder Situation die Punkte verteilt, d.h. die Spielsteine auf der Zählleiste verschoben. Wenn man die letzte Situation gespielt hat, darf man noch einen letzten Tipp abgeben und zwei Farben nennen (Haupt- und Nebenfarbe), mit denen man angibt, für welchen Typus man den gegnerischen Charakter hält. Dann drehen beide Spieler die Charakterkarten auf die Vorderseite und geben sich zu erkennen. Je nachdem, ob man die richtigen beiden Farben genannt hat oder zumindest noch entweder die Haupt- oder die Nebenfarbe korrekt geraten hat, gibt es zusätzliche Bonuspunkte. Um den Endspielstand zu errechnen, werden zudem nach dem Durchspielen aller Situationskarten die auf der Zählleiste gesammelten Punkte hinzugezählt (abzüglich der Minuspunkte). Außerdem wird ermittelt, wie treu die Spieler ihren Spielcharakteren geblieben sind für in ihrer Haupt- bzw. Nebenfarbe errungene Punkte erhalten die Spieler zusätzliche Bonuspunkte. Zusammenfassend gesagt kann man im Spiel auf dreierlei Weise Punkte gewinnen: Zum ersten durch gelungene interkulturelle Kommunikation mit dem Gegenüber, zum zweiten durch gutes Einschätzen des Spielcharakters des Mitspielers sowie zum dritten durch Treue zum eigenen Charakter, indem man versucht, möglichst viele Punkte in den eigenen beiden Farben zu sammeln, was allerdings ohne Kompromissbereitschaft und funktionierende Kommunikation nicht möglich ist. Der Grundgedanke dieses Spiels ist es also, sich aneinander anzunähern, ohne seinen Charakter ganz aufzugeben. Dabei soll in der gegebenen Situation versucht werden einzuschätzen, wie die andere Person reagieren könnte, aber auch zu überlegen, welche der eigenen Antworten dem eigenen Charakter am ehesten gerecht würde und wie weit man bereit ist, Kompromisse einzugehen. Sieg und Niederlage sind hier also relative Begriffe. Gewinnt ein Spieler nach Punkten heißt dies zwar, dass er seine Position zu behaupten gewusst hat bzw. über ein gutes Einschätzungsvermögen verfügt, doch auf der Ebene der Interkulturellen Kommunikation bedeuten natürlich gerade ein knappes Ergebnis oder sogar ein Gleichstand den gemeinsamen Sieg. FAZIT Das Spiel hat mehrere Zielgruppen, die bereits angedeutet worden sind. Es richtet sich zum einen an Interkulturelle-Kommunikations-Trainer, die z.b. für Firmen tätig sind und deren Mitarbeiter auf Auslandsaufenthalte vorbereiten. Gleichzeitig soll es auch den (angehenden) Expatriots zur Vorbereitung oder bereits im Gastland selbst nützlich sein und ihnen sowohl im interkulturellen Bereich Informationen und Anregungen 164

165 geben, wie auch die Möglichkeit, Sprachkenntnisse spielerisch anzuwenden. Abgesehen davon soll das Spiel für Lehrer als didaktisches Material für den Unterricht einsetzbar sein, wobei auch der Einsatz einzelner Situationen für Diskussionen, Rollenspiele und Interaktionen denkbar ist. Interkulturelle Begegnungen vollziehen sich täglich überall auf der Welt. Ob diese Zusammentreffen positiv für beide Seiten ausgehen, hängt von verschiedenen Faktoren ab, zu denen neben äußeren Einflüssen das kulturell verwurzelte Gedankengut der beteiligten Personen sowie deren individuelle Charaktereigenschaften gehören. Eine ähnliche Situation kann also mit verschiedenen Interaktionspartnern jeweils ganz anders ausgehen. Diesem Faktum wird in dem Spieleprojekt Rechnung getragen, denn beim Erstellen interkulturellen Lehrmaterials ist zu bedenken, dass es keine starren Gesetze gibt, wie man sich in einer bestimmten Situation verhalten muss. Es sollen daher keine Vorschriften gemacht, sondern eine Palette an Reaktionsmöglichkeiten angeboten werden, zwischen denen die Übergänge fließend sein können. Wie im realen Alltags- und Berufsleben gibt es auch hier keine absolute Sicherheit, wie Personen in bestimmten Situationen tatsächlich agieren bzw. reagieren werden. Zwar entsteht das Spiel in interkultureller Zusammenarbeit von polnischen und deutschen Partnern, doch ist die Gruppe offen für erweiternde Vorschläge und kritische Auseinandersetzung von Personen deutscher, polnischer und anderer Nationalität. Mit dem Projekt soll zum spielerischen Einstieg ins interkulturelle Miteinander eingeladen, aber auch zur Diskussion der dargestellten Situationen angeregt werden. Literaturverzeichnis 1. Bausinger, Hermann Typisch deutsch. Wie deutsch sind die Deutschen? München. 2. Dittert, Annette Palmen in Warschau. Geschichten aus dem neuen Polen. München. 3. Fischer, Katrin; Dünstl, Sonja; Thomas, Alexander Beruflich in Polen. Trainingsprogramm für Manager, Fach- und Führungskräfte (Handlungskompetenz im Ausland). Göttingen 4. Gawin, Izabella; Schulze, Dieter KulturSchock Polen. Westerstede 5. Gorski, Maxim Gebrauchsanweisung für Deutschland. München 6. Hiller, Gundula G Interkulturelle Kommunikation zwischen Deutschen und Polen an der Europa-Universität Viadrina. Eine empirische Analyse von Critical Incidents. Frankfurt am Main 7. Jäger-Dabek, Brigitte Polen. Eine Nachbarschaftskunde für Deutsche.Berlin. 8. Jäger-Dabek, Brigitte Reisegast in Polen. Fremde Kulturen verstehen und erleben. Dormagen. 9. Knapp, Radek Gebrauchsanweisung für Polen. München. 10. Molkewehrum, Imke Typisch deutsch. Bremen. 11. Möller, Steffen Viva Polonia. Frankfurt am Main. 12. Peter, Stefanie (Hrsg.) Alphabet der polnischen Wunder. Frankfurt am Main. 165

166 13. Soboczynski, Adam Polski Tango. Eine Reise durch Deutschland und Polen. Köln. 14. Sommer, Theo Leben in Deutschland. Anatomie einer Nation. Ein ZEIT-Buch. Köln 15. Wojciechowski, Krzysztof Knigge für deutsche Unternehmer in Polen. Frankfurt/Oder. 16. Zeidenitz, Stefan; Barkow, Ben Die Deutschen pauschal. Frankfurt am Main. Santrauka Projekto pristatymas žaidimas, skirtas tarpkultūriniams gebėjimams perteikti komunikuojant ekonomikos tema (remiantis Vokietijos ir Lenkijos pavyzdžiu) Claudia Finner, Britta Stöckmann Straipsnyje pristatomas bendras vokiečių ir lenkų Poznanės Adomo Mickevičiaus universiteto tarpkultūrinės komunikacijos dėstytojų projektas, kurio tikslas sukurti žaidybinius pratimus tarpkultūrinių gebėjimų ugdymui ekonomikos komunikacijos srityje. Vien gramatikos ir žodyno išmokimo bei šalityros žinių nepakanka, kad būtų galima orientuotis globalizuotame pasaulyje ir adekvačiai veikti bei reaguoti profesinėse ir kasdieninėse situacijose. Verslo ir privačiame gyvenime vis labiau reikalinga tarpkultūrinė kompetencija. Darbo grupė siekia sukurti žaidimą, kuris paruoštų studentą viešnagei užsienyje, vaizduotų konkrečias situacijas, į kurias jie gali patekti savo profesiniame gyvenime ir kasdienybėje. Šiose situacijos visuomet dalyvauja du asmenys, kurie jose elgiasi pagal savo kultūrinius ir charakterio ypatumus. Priklausomai nuo to, kaip jie įvertina save ir savo partnerį situacijoje, komunikacija gali pasisekti arba nepasisekti. Kadangi tai bendras vokiečių-lenkų projektas, todėl remiamasi Vokietijos ir Lenkijos pavyzdžiais, tačiau žaidimo idėją ir mechanizmą vėliau galima pritaikyti kitoms tautybėms ir kultūroms. 166

167 Sprachstandmessung und Lernfortschritte Litauischer Studierender im Fach Deutsch: eine Vergleichende Analyse Mittels C-Test- Ergebnissen Klaus Geyer Pädagogische Universität Vilnius, Studentų Str. 39, Vilnius, Lithuania Abstract The article presents scientific findings about the level of mastering the German language achieved by the students majoring in the German Language at three Lithuanian universities at the end of the spring term of The investigation of a pseudolongitudinal layer provides an opportunity to analyse the results as the students progress and even to carry out real comparison of longitudinal layers in a small fragment. The results of experimental accomplishing of Test C tasks are taken as the data, which was processed by TestDaF institute. As far as it was an experiment the results are not precise, that is why ascribing them according to Common European Framework can be only provisory. In spite of this limitation the analysis of the data can be followed by a significant comparison and formulation of the tendencies of development. It is also pointed out in an exhaustive introductory discussion about the format of Test C. Schlüsselwörter: C-Test, Sprachtest, TestDaF, OnDaF, Germanistik, Deutschkenntnisse, Litauen DAS FORMAT C-TEST Der C-Test ist ein schriftlicher integrativer Test der allgemeinen Sprachbeherrschung (Raatz c-test.de) eingeführt von Ch. Klein-Braley und U. Raatz als Weiterentwicklung des Cloze-Tests, gehört er heute zu den am häufigsten eingesetzten und am am gründlichsten untersuchten neueren Sprachtests (Grotjahn 1995, 37). C- Tests kommen zur Sprachstandstestung in Fremd-, Zweit- und auch Erstsprachen auf unterschiedlichen Alters- und Niveaustufen zur Anwendung und sind für eine ganze Reihe von Sprachen adaptiert worden (vgl. den Überblick bei Grotjahn / Klein-Braley / Raatz 2002, 99). Der C-Test ist wohl auch eines der am gründlichsten untersuchten Sprachtest-Formate (vgl. die Bibliographie unter > Archiv mit über 150 Titeln; Stand 10. November 2008). 167

168 Ein C-Test besteht typischerweise aus fünf bis sechs kurzen, möglichst authentischen Texten bzw. Textabschnitten im Umfang von Wörtern, angeordnet nach steigendem Grad Schwierigkeit. Die Thematik der Texte variiert, um nicht, wie im älteren Cloze-Testfomat mit einem einzigen, umfangreichen Lückentext, Teilnehmende mit (zufälligen) Spezialkenntnissen zu bevorzugen. Die Texte werden systematisch beschädigt, d. h. sie werden zu Lückentexten gemacht, und die Aufgabe der Prüflinge besteht nun darin, die Lücken zu rekonstruieren, konkret: halbe Wörter zu vervollständigen. Die systematische Beschädigung geschieht nach folgendem Prinzip: Beginnend mit dem zweiten Wort des zweiten Satzes wird in jedem Text bei jedem zweiten Wort die zweite Hälfte getilgt. Wörter mit einem einzigen Buchstaben [die im Deutschen nur peripher vorkommen; K.G.] und Eigennamen [sowie Zahlen; K.G.] bleiben unberücksichtigt. Bei Wörtern mit einer ungeraden Anzahl von Buchstaben ist die Zahl der getilgten Buchstaben um eins höher als die Zahl der nicht getilgten Buchstaben. Am Textende sollte ein kurzes unversehrtes Textstück als Kontext für die Lösungsfindung stehen bleiben. (Grotjahn 2002a, 212). Dieses Prinzip, das auch das kanonische genannt wird, kann bei Bedarf Abänderungen erfahren, sei es, dass die Schwierigkeit des Tests erhöht werden soll (z. B. durch Tilgung von mehr als der Hälfte der Wörter), sei es, dass das hauptsächlich am Englischen, Deutschen und auch Französischen entwickelte kanonischen Prinzip der zu testenden Einzelsprache strukturell (Neuhebräisch, Türkisch) oder aber im Hinblick auf die Schrift nicht gerecht wird (Chinesisch, Japanisch). Auf einer ganz anderen Ebene liegen Modifikationen und Anpassungen, die wegen spezieller Besonderheiten einzelner Texte in geringfügigem Maß vorgenommen werden (vgl. die Beispiele bei Arras / Eckes / Grotjahn 2002), wie z. B. das Austauschen allzu ungewöhnlicher Wörter gegen nahezu synonyme, aber gebräuchlichere. Das Konzept hinter dem Testformat ist das der reduzierten Redundanz (reduced redundancy), wie auch schon beim Cloze-Test, wo in längeren Texten jedes x-te Wort (n zwischen 5 und 10) vollständig getilgt wird): Tests using the concept of reduced redundancy start with the assumption that adult educated native speakers of a language can, in general, make use of the redundancy of their language to restore damaged messages through their knowledge of the rules, patterns and idiom of their own language and culture their competence. From this it follows that a learner of the language who by definition does not have a fully developed competence will be less able to use redundancies to restore the message. (Raatz / Klein-Braley 2002, 76) 168

169 In der Konsequenz heißt das: Je kompetenter die Lerner in einer Fremdsprache sind, desto besser können sie im Zuge einer konstruktiven und antizipatorischen Verarbeitung von Sprache Gebrauch von der natürlichen Redundanz eines Textes machen und desto besser können sie den C-Test lösen. (Grotjahn 1995, 38) Sprachliche Fähigkeiten oder Fertigkeiten werden beim C-Test jedoch nicht differenziert (deshalb: integrativ), weshalb es sich besonders als Sprachstandsfeststellung (ohne Unterrichtsbezug; anders als beispielsweise spezifische Lernfortschrittstests im Sprachkurs) eignet und verwendet wird. Gruppenzuordnung der Prüfling, z. B. Einstufungstest oder als Nachweis der Deutschkenntnisse bei der Bewerbung um ein Stipendium des Deutschen Akademischen Austauschdienstes. Diese mit dem C-Test angestrebte globale Feststellung der allgemeinen Kompetenz (Grotjahn 2002a, 211) ist es aber auch, die das soll nicht verschwiegen werden durchaus auch skeptische Stimmen zum C-Test-Verfahren hervorgerufen hat. Schifko 2001, 829f. merkt zur Beschränktheit der Aussagekraft von C-Tests an, dass man sich darüber klar sein [muss], dass dieser Testtyp nicht dazu geeignet ist, die Fähigkeit zu komplexer Sprachanwendung was z. B. auch pragmatische und kommunikationsstrategische Fertigkeiten miteinschließen würde zu überprüfen, und Gogolin stellt zur Interpretation der im Test erbrachten Leistungen fest: So kann z. B. nichts darüber gesagt werden, ob die nicht geleisteten Rekonstruktionen [also nicht oder nicht richtig ausgefüllte Lücken; K.G.] anzeigen, dass der in einem Textfragment enthaltene Kontext nicht verstanden wurde, die Fehlstelle also im Rezeptiven lag, oder dass die verlangten Wörter nicht oder nicht genau genug aktiviert wurden. (Gogolin 2001, 1008f) Die Kritik fokussiert zwei Aspekte: zunächst die Frage, ob beim C-Test tatsächlich das Leseverstehen bzw. Textverständnis getestet wird. Zu fragen ist nämlich, ob die Lösungen v. a. auf der Basis des Makrokontextes, d. h. des Gesamttextes und seines Verständnisses gefunden werden, oder aber ob dies auf der Basis des Mikrokontextes, d. h. der unmittelbaren Umgebung der Lücke und wesentlich durch morphosyntaktische Information beeinflusst, geschieht. Die Ergebnisse von Versuchen mit C-Tests, deren Sätze in der Reihenfolge veränderten wurden, scheinen hier etwas widersprüchlich zu sein (Grotjahn 1996 vs. Grotjahn 2002b). Der zweite kritische Aspekt wäre, dass dieser Testtyp ein sehr fortgeschrittenes Sprachniveau zu erfassen gar nicht in der Lage ist. Dem begegnet beispielsweise der C-Test-basierte ondaf-einstufungstest des TestDaF- Instituts damit, dass er als oberste Ergebnisstufe lediglich C1 kennt, d. h. auf dem C-Niveau keine weitere Differenzierung vornimmt. Allerdings gilt auch: Wer in einem C-Test eine hohe Punktzahl erreicht, hat gute Erfolgsaussichten nicht nur bei Tests des Leseverstehens, sondern auch bei Tests des Hörverstehens, des Schriftlichen Ausdrucks und des Mündlichen Ausdrucks. (TestDaF-Institut 2007, 11) Den angesprochenen Schwächen oder Einschränkungen wobei kein Testformat alles leisten kann steht jedoch die Erfüllung wesentlicher Gütekriterien gegenüber, 169

170 wie in der umfangreichen Literatur zum C-Test gezeigt worden ist. Offensichtlich genügt der C-Test den klassischen Hauptgütekriterien der Objektivität, Reliabilität und Validität (als ranghöchstes Kriterium), aber er erweist sich auch im Hinblick auf weitere Kriterien wie Fairness, Ökonomie, Praktikabilität, Funktionalität, Robustheit und geringe Trainierbarkeit als günstig (vgl. TestDaF-Institut 2007, 8f.). Der folgende Beispieltext ist > Fit für den TestDaF? entnommen und illustriert das C-Test-Format: Die Europäische Union Die Europäische Union gewinnt immer mehr an Bedeutung. Schon e Blick i die Zei beweist e : Die Eini Europas i seit d 90er Jah von ei Randthema z einem wich und zugl heftig umstri Gegenstand politi Auseinandersetzungen gewo. Nunmehr h sich d EU v einem wirtsch orientierten Zusammens zu einer handlungsfähigen Vereinigung mit einem gewählten Parlament entwickelt. 170 Die Lösung könnte folgendermaßen aussehen: Die Europäische Union Die Europäische Union gewinnt immer mehr an Bedeutung. Schon ein Blick in die Zeitung beweist es : Die Einigung Europas ist seit den 90er Jahren von einem Randthema zu einem wichtigen und zugleich heftig umstrittenen Gegenstand politischer Auseinandersetzungen geworden. Nunmehr hat sich die EU von einem wirtschaftlich orientierten Zusammenschluss zu einer handlungsfähigen Vereinigung mit einem gewählten Parlament entwickelt. In der 3. Lücke ist natürlich auch Zeitungen statt Zeitung sinnvoll und wohlgeformt, auch wenn es dann nicht der kanonischen Tilgungsregel entspricht. Allerdings gehört eine Information darüber, dass es sich um halbe Wörter handelt, gar nicht zur Instruktion. Beim aktuellen ondaf-test als einem Beispiel lautet sie (Stand November 2008) diesbezüglich: In den folgenden Texten fehlen bei einer Reihe von Wörtern einige Buchstaben. Ergänzen Sie bitte die Lücken in sinnvoller Weise. Nicht unproblematisch aus linguistischer Perspektive erscheint im Beispiel wie generell beim C-Test, dass die Zähleinheit der Tilgung für die Bildung der Lücken Buchstaben sind obwohl doch die Suche nach der Lösung häufig über innere Phonation und lautes Lesen erfolgt (Grotjahn 2002a, 213). Grotjahn / Tönshoff / Hohenbleicher 1994, 118 plädieren deshalb allerdings im Kontext des Italienischen dafür, in Fällen, in denen die Tilgungsgrenze durch eine Graphemkombination verläuft, die mit keiner möglichen Aussprache des letzten nicht getilgten Einzelgraphems übereinstimmt, sondern einem weiteren Laut entspricht, den Polygraph nicht zu trennen, sondern entweder komplett zu tilgen (der Test wird schwieriger) oder komplett zu erhalten (der Test wird leichter) (Grotjahn 1995, 40). Obwohl es hier m. E. gerade nicht um Grapheme, sondern eben um

171 Buchstaben geht, die sich in Bigraphen und Trigraphen zu Graphemen kombinieren (vgl. hierzu auch Eisenberg 1998, 290f), ist der Punkt auch für das Deutsche höchst relevant. Die letzte Lücke enthält genau so ein Problem Zusammens nämlich. Wenn man es mit der inneren Phonation als Prinzip ernst meint, liegt auf der Hand, dass eine Aufspaltung von <sch> und <ch> inakzeptabel ist; zu diskutieren wären darüber hinaus die Buchstabenkombinationen, die den Diphthongen und/oder Affrikaten entsprechen. Wertet, man sie monophonematisch (wofür es gute Argumente gibt), sollten sie wohl ebenfalls eher nicht getrennt werden. Ein weiteres Problem, das Grotjahn / Tönshoff / Hohenbleicher 1994 wiederum für das Italienische ansprechen, ist die Frage der Tilgung bei Komposita. Sie stellen fest: Zusammengesetzte Formen dürften bei unflexibler Anwendung der Tilgungsregel vielfach nur schwer rekonstruierbar sein. [ ] In solchen Fällen wäre zu diskutieren, ob nicht als grundsätzliche Einrichtungsalternative zumindest der erste Buchstabe der zweiten Komponente ungetilgt bleiben sollte. Bezüglich der Nominalkomposita läßt sich allerdings festhalten, daß diese im Unterschied etwa zum Deutschen eine kurze, weitgehen geschlossene Liste einschlägiger Bildungen darstellen. (Grotjahn / Tönshoff / Hohenbleicher 1994, 120) Während aber für das Italienische die Zahl möglicher Varianten von vornherein stark begrenzt [ist], was die Bearbeitung im Einzelfall erleichtert (ebd.), ergeben sich für das Deutsche mit seinen extensiven Kompositionsmöglichkeiten evtl. größere Probleme. 1. UNTERSUCHUNGSDESIGN Die vorliegende Untersuchung basiert auf den Ergebnissen einer Erprobung von C-Test-Texten für das TestDaF-Institut. Die Teilnehmenden waren Studierende der Germanistik (kombinierte Studienprogramme wie z. B. Deutsch-Litauisch waren ausgenommen) in allen vier Studienjahren des Bakkalaureats an den für das Fach Deutsch wichtigsten drei Universitäten in Litauen; dies sind (in alphabetischer Reihenfolge): die Pädagogische Universität Vilnius (VPU), die Universität Vilnius (VU) und die Vytautas-Magnus-Universität (VDU) in Kaunas. 12 An den Germanistik-Instituten dieser drei 12 Es soll nicht unerwähnt bleiben, dass noch an weiteren Universitäten in Litauen Deutsch als Fach studiert werden kann, so an den Universitäten Klaipėda und Šiauliai sowie an der Geisteswissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Univ. Vilnius in Kaunas; hinzu kommt die Technische Universität Kaunas mit Deutsch als möglicher Schwerpunktsprache im Studiengang Technische Dokumentation, mancherorts Deutsch im Rahmen von kombinierten Studiengängen (z. B. in Kombination mit Litauisch) und schließlich der studienbegleitende Deutschunterricht an so gut wie allen litauischen Universitäten. Außerdem wird Deutsch, oft in Verbindung mit Englisch, an einer Reihe von Kollegien angeboten (entspricht teils Fachhochschule, teils Berufsfachschule). 171

172 Universitäten waren im Erprobungszeitraum LektorInnen bzw. ein Sprachassistent 13 des DAAD tätig, was sich für die zuverlässige Organisation und Durchführung der Datengewinnung als günstig erwiesen hat. Die zur Verfügung gestellten 5 unterschiedlichen Erprobungssets bestanden aus 10 C-Test-Texten à 20 Lücken, theoretisch waren somit 200 Punkte erreichbar. Pro Text waren 5 Minuten Bearbeitungszeit vorgesehen, d. h. der Test selbst dauerte 50 Minuten, mit Vor- und Nachbereitung (Austeilen, Einsammeln, Erklärung des Kontextes und der Modalitäten, Hinweis auf den Zeitrahmen bis zum Eintreffen der Ergebnisse) war mit ca. 70 Minuten zu rechnen. Mit 10 Texten war die Erprobung umfangreich und stellte hohe Anforderungen an die Konzentration der Studierenden; die Empfehlung für echte C-Tests beispielsweise lautet maximal 6 Texte bei 6 x 5 = 30 Minuten Bearbeitungszeit (vgl. Abschnitt 1). Als Zusatzinformation wurde erhoben, ob die Studierenden einen längeren ( 4 Monate) Aufenthalt in Deutschland (oder in einem anderen deutschsprachigen Land) absolviert hatten. Der vom TestDaF-Institut vorgegebene Zeitpunkt der Erprobung mit Beginn im Mai ist für die lokalen Verhältnisse als wenig günstig zu bezeichnen, da nur wenige Tage bis zum Ende der Vorlesungszeit im Studienjahr 2007/08 verblieben und der Fokus der Studierenden sich bereits auf die bevorstehende Prüfungsphase richtet. Es ist der Flexibilität der Kolleginnen und Kollegen, in deren Lehrveranstaltungen die Erprobungen durchgeführt wurden, zu verdanken, dass die Erprobung und damit die Datengewinnung dennoch in einem aussagekräftigen Umfang durchgeführt werden konnten. Tabelle 1 zeigt die Anzahl der teilnehmenden Studierenden nach Studienjahr (Stj.) und Universität (Univ.): Tabelle 1: Anzahl der teilnehmenden Studierenden nach Studienjahr und Universität Stj / Univ. VPU VU VDU gesamt gesamt Die Korrektur der Texte erfolgte in Deutschland am TestDaF-Institut, die Ergebnisse aus Deutschland trafen im September 2008 bei uns ein. Bei der vorgenommenen vergleichenden Untersuchung der Ergebnisse der litauischen Germanistik-Studierenden handelt es sich um eine Querschnitterhebung, die perspektivisch bei späterer Wiederholung durchaus auch als Basis einer Längsschnittstudie fungieren kann und soll, wenn man den Sprachstand der Studierenden in einem oder in zwei Jahren erneut erfasst und so die Entwicklung der allgemeinen Kompetenz im 13 an der VU; zum Studienjahr 2008/09 ist auch dort (wieder) ein vollwertiges Lektorat eingerichtet. 172

173 Deutschen der Studierenden global ermittelt. Gleichzeitig kann die Untersuchung aber auch als Pseudo-Längsschnittstudie gelesen werden (nicht unüblich bei Spracherwerbsstudien, wenn die Zeit für eine echte Längsschnittstudie nicht gegeben ist, vgl. z. B. Maas / Mehlem 2003 oder Templin 1971 (1957)); d. h., die zu einem bestimmten Zeitpunkt gewonnenen Daten unterschiedlicher Gruppen werden als die Entwicklung der Deutschkompetenz ein- und derselben Gruppe über die 4 Studienjahre hinweg interpretiert dies selbstverständlich mit dem erforderlichen Vorbehalt und mit nur vorläufigem Charakter. (Für das 2. Stj. VPU liegen sogar punktuell vergleichbare Daten einer früheren Erprobung aus dem November 2005 vor; siehe unten.) 2. ERGEBNISSE Die Ergebnisse der Testung liegen in zweierlei Form vor, einerseits als erreichte Punktezahl wobei hier zu berücksichtigen ist, dass die Punkte in verschiedenen und eben potenziell unterschiedlich schwierigen Erprobungssets erreicht wurden, und in Form von Prozenträngen 14, d. h. als zwar etwas abstraktere, aber besser vergleichbare Messgröße, die potenziell unterschiedliche Schwierigkeit der Texte weitgehend eliminiert. Wenn die vorliegenden Ergebnisse der Erprobung dennoch für einen Vergleich genutzt werden, so geschieht dies aus verschiedenen Gründen. Zunächst ist anzunehmen, dass auf Grund der TN-Zahl manche Unterschiede, die durch die potenziell unterschiedliche Schwierigkeit der Erprobungssets entsteht, ausgemittelt werden zumal eben nicht nur die erreichte Punktzahl zur Verfügung steht, sondern auch die aussagekräftigeren Prozentränge; vorweggenommen werden kann bereits, dass der Vergleich der Punktwerte und der Prozentränge mit kleinen Abweichungen ähnliche Resultate liefert. Vor allem aber kann davon ausgegangen werden, dass die zu erprobenden C-Test-Texte angesichts der Erfahrung des TestDaF-Instituts mit dem Format nicht zu völlig absurden Abweichungen des Schwierigkeitsgrades führt. Grotjahn 2002a, 216 stellt sogar im Zusammenhang mit der anzustrebenden Vortestung fest: Nicht selten weisen allerdings auch erstmals eingesetzte C-Tests erstaunlich gute Testkennwerte auf. Bei der weiteren Verarbeitung der Punkte und Prozentränge wurden für die Berechnung von Durchschnittswerten die besten und die schwächsten 10% abgeschnitten, um auszuschließen, dass einzelne, überragende oder besonders schwache TN den Mittelwert verfälschen. Bei der Angabe von Maximal- und Minimal-Werten wurde aus demselben Grund der zweithöchste und der zweitniedrigste Wert der Datenreihe herangezogen und nicht der absolut höchste bzw. niedrigste. So ergibt sich ein realistischeres Bild des Leistungsstandes der Studierenden. Welches Ergebnis war zu erwarten? Es ist kein Geheimnis, dass das Germanistische Institut der Universität Vilnius als das renommierteste in Litauen gilt, weshalb sich dort 14 Der Prozentrang gibt an, zu den wie viel Prozent Besten jemand (bzw. das Testergebnis) zu zählen ist: Ein Prozentrang von 66 bedeutet beispielsweise, dass man unter den 66% Besten ist bzw. umgekehrt, dass 34% besser abgeschnitten haben. 173

174 auch folgerichtig die ambitioniertesten Studierenden bewerben. Die Germanistik an der Universität Vilnius hat ein eher traditionelles philologisches Profil. Die Pädagogische Universität Vilnius bildet wie schon der Name der Institution erkennen lässt nominell für den Lehrerberuf aus, der sich in Litauen jedoch derzeit auf Grund der schlechten Vergütung, mangelnder Aufstiegsmöglichkeiten und des niedrigem Prestiges keiner großen Beliebtheit erfreut. Dies ist ein wesentlicher Grund, weshalb die VPU bei vielen Studierenden alles andere als erste Wahl ist, sondern eher niedrig prioritiert wird. Neben der Sprachausbildung (Deutsch als Fremdsprache im Ausland) gehört an der Pädagogischen Universität Vilnius aber auch einen nennenswerter Anteil an Pädagogik und Psychologie zum Studienprogramm wie auch zum -abschluss. Beide Universitäten in Vilnius sind durch eine eher linguistische Orientierung des Faches geprägt, in der die theoretische wie praktische Sprachausbildung die zentrale Rolle spielt. Die Vytautas-Magnus-Universität in Kaunas verfolgt im Unterschied dazu eher ein literatur- oder kulturwissenschaftliches Profil, bei dem nicht die Sprache selbst im Mittelpunkt steht was nicht bedeutet, dass nicht auch dort, v. a. in den beiden ersten Studienjahren, umfangreicher Sprachunterricht erteilt wird. Die Ergebnisse der vorgenommenen Analyse bergen keine großen Überraschungen diesbezüglich. Betont werden soll jedoch, dass sie nicht als Leistungsvergleich o. ä. der drei wichtigsten germanistischen Institute in Litauen zu verstehen (misszuverstehen) ist und auch nicht als eine Art der Qualitätsbeurteilung. Dies lag und liegt dem Autor und seinen DAAD-KollegInnen an der VU und der VDU, die in die Datengewinnungsphase dieser Untersuchung involviert waren, fern. Die Analyse dient vielmehr der Bestandsaufnahme der Deutschkenntnisse von Germansitik-Studierenden im Bakkalaureat der drei Universitäten. Über die Fachkenntnisse, die Lernmotivation, über die allgemeine Studierfähigkeit usw. usf. der Studierenden wird hier ebenso wenig ausgesagt wie über die Qualität ihrer Hochschullehrenden und deren Lehre oder gar über die wissenschaftliche Qualität der Institute. Tabelle 2 fasst die Ergebnisse zusammen: Tabelle 2: erreichte Punkt- und Prozentrang-Werte der teilnehmenden Germanistik- Studierenden; oben Mittelwert, unten Minimal- und Maximalwert; nach Studienjahr und Universität Stj VPU VU VDU Punkte Prozentrang Punkte Prozentrang Punkte Prozentrang Mittelwert min-max

175 Als Querschnittstudie und das ist es schließlich in erster Linie gelesen fällt zunächst auf, dass die Deutschkenntnisse der Studierenden der VU in jedem Studienjahr am höchsten sind. Bei der VPU fällt insbesondere das 1. Studienjahr als Einstiegsniveau als besonders niedrig heraus, die kommenden Studienjahre erweisen sich als ungefähr denen der VDU vergleichbar, mit einer leichten Tendenz zu höheren Werten an der VPU. Manche Gruppen scheinen weitgehend auf demselben Niveau zu sein: Innerhalb der Universitäten sind dies das 2. und 3. Stj. an der VPU wie auch das 2. und 3. Stj. an der VU, außerdem das 1. und 2. Stj. sowie das 3. und 4. Stj. an der VDU. Für die relativ schwachen Werte der Studierenden 3. Stj. an den Universitäten in Vilnius könnte man als Erklärung anführen, dass es eben stärkere und schwächere Jahrgänge gibt. Dem widerspricht allerdings der deutliche Unterschied der Studierenden gerade zwischen dem 2. und dem 3. Stj. an der VDU. Ein weiterer Erklärungsversuch ist, dass insbesondere das 3. Stj. ein beliebter Zeitraum für ein Erasmus-Stipendium nach Deutschland ist (zumindest an VPU und VU), sodass mehrere Studierende aus dem oberen Leistungsdrittel fehlen. Letztlich bleiben diese Überlegungen jedoch spekulativ. Im Vergleich der Universitäten untereinander weisen das 4. Stj. an der VDU und das 2. und 3. Stj. an der VU ungefähr dasselbe Niveau auf, ebenso das 1. Stj. an der VU und das 2. und 3. Stj. an der VPU. die Werte er VDU liegen eher zwischen denen der anderen beiden Universitäten, lediglich das 3. Stj. an der VPU wie auch an der VDU zeigen ähnliche Ergebnisse. Insgesamt erweisen sich die Gruppen als sehr heterogen mit einer großen Spannweise zwischen Minimal- und Maximalwert (auf die Angabe der durchschnittlichen Abweichung vom Mittelwert oder der Varianz oder Standardabweichung wird verzichtet). Dieser Befund gilt nicht nur für das 1. Stj.; es scheint also nicht so gut zu gelingen, die anfänglichen Unterschiede auszugleichen und insbesondere die schwächeren Studierenden trotz der individuell beachtlichen Lernfortschritte an die stärkeren heranzuführen. Allein das 4. Studienjahr an der VU bildet eine weitgehend homogene Gruppe, es ist allerdings auch mit 9 TN die deutlich kleinste im Test. Alle genannten Unterschiede erweisen sich als statistisch nicht signifikant auf einem Fehlerniveau von 5% (t-test). Reizvoll, wenn auch nur unter Vorbehalt durchzuführen, ist die Interpretation als Längsschnittstudie. Hier ließe sich ablesen, dass die Studierenden an den beiden Universitäten in Vilnius durchschnittlich nach Punkten ungefähr denselben Lernfortschritt im Laufe der 4 Jahre erreichen (ca. 55 Punkte), aber eben ausgehend von unterschiedlichen Niveaus. An der VDU fiele der Lernfortschritt aus dieser Perspektive deutlich geringer aus (23 Punkte). Relativ zum Ausgangsniveau gerechnet würden die Studierenden der VPU ihren Punktwert sogar nahezu verdoppeln, während die Studierenden der VU sich um immerhin gut 40% und die der VDU um nur gut 20% steigerten. 175

176 3. TENTATIVE EINSTUFUNG NECH DEM GEMEINSAMEN EUROPäISCHEN REFERENZRAHMEN FüR SPRACHEN Eine Einstufung der erreichten Punktzahl mit Bezug auf den europäischen Referenzrahmen ist zum gegenwärtigen Zeitpunkt der Datenanalyse nicht möglich. Dies konstatiert der Begleitbrief des TestDaF-Institut bei der Übersendung der Ergebnissen der Erprobung. Dennoch kann und möchte man eine wenigstens tentative Einstufung auf der Basis der Ergebnisse (nach erreichten Punkten) von über 50 durchgeführten OnDaF-Tests aus den Jahren 2007 und 2008 versuchen. Dies impliziert allerdings, dass man so tut, als ob die Texte in den Erprobungssets bereits hinsichtlich ihrer Schwierigkeit kalibriert wären. Dass dies nicht der Fall ist u. a. dafür erfolgt ja die Erprobung!, zeigt der Vergleich von erreichten Punkten und Prozenträngen in unterschiedlichen Erprobungssets: So entspricht einer erreichten Punktzahl von 124 im Erprobungsset Z ein Prozentrang von 72, während 126 erreichte Punkte im Erprobungsset Y einen Prozentrang von 64 liefern. Weitere Beispiele: 136 erreichte Punkte in Z Prozentrang 81 vs. 139 erreichte Punkte in Y Prozentrang 74%; 101 erreichte Punkte in AA Prozentrang 51 vs. 100 erreichte Punkte in AB 59%; 147 erreichte Punkte Prozentrang 91 in AB vs. Prozentrang 80 in Y. Für die aussagekräftigeren Prozentränge liegen keine geeigneten Vergleichszahlen (z. B. aus OnDaF) vor, auf deren Basis eine womöglich etwas genauere Abschätzung der Einordnung nach den Niveaustufen des GER vorgenommen werden könnte. Die tentative Einstufung nach erreichten Punkten, die mit sicherlich ± 10% Unschärfe behaftet ist, orientiert sich an den Werten wie in Tabelle 3 dargestellt: Tabelle 3: Tentative Einstufung in die Niveaus des Gemeinsamen europäischen Referenzrahmens nach erreichter Punktzahl GER-Stufe erreichte Punktzahl (tentativ) C1 und besser 160 B B A unter A2 < 40 Angewandt auf die Punktwerte aus Tabelle 2 ergeben sich folgende ungefähre Niveaustufen für die Studierenden, wieder aufgeschlüsselt nach Studienjahr (Stj.) und Universität (Univ.): 176

177 Tabelle 4: tentative (!) Einstufung in die Niveaustufen des Gemeinsamen europäischen Referenzrahmens nach erreichten Punkten in der Erprobung, nach Studienjahr und Universität Stj. / Univ. VPU VU VDU 1 A2 B1 B1 2 B1 B2 B1 3 B1 B2 B1 4 B2 C1 B2 4. ZUM ZUSAMMENHANG ZWISCHEN SPRACHKENNTNISSEN UND AUFENTHALTEN IN DEUTSCHLAND Wie zu erwarten war, besteht ein positiver Zusammenhang zwischen einem Aufenthalt in Deutschland (oder einem anderen deutschsprachigen Land, im Folgenden der Einfachheit halber als Deutschlandaufenthalt bezeichnet) von mindestens 4 Monaten und den deutschen Sprachkenntnissen (bzw. dem Ergebnis der Testerprobung). Unklar ist jedoch die Richtung dieses Zusammenhangs: Gehen diejenigen Studierenden, die ohnehin besonders leistungsstark, leistungsfähig und/oder interessiert am Studienfach sind, beispielsweise mit dem Erasmus-Programm nach Deutschland, oder verbessern sie sich erst dort im Laufe ihres Gastaufenthaltes entscheidend? Welche Rolle spielt ein eventuell absolviertes Au-pair-Jahr in Deutschland bei der Wahl des Studienfaches? Da hierzu Informationen fehlen, sind diese Fragen nicht zu beantworten; als Faktoren für die überdurchschnittlichen Testergebnisse sind sie vermutlich ohnehin interdependent. Tabelle 5 gibt Auskunft über die Anzahl der Studierenden mit einem Deutschlandaufenthalt von mindestens 4 Monaten: Tabelle 5: mindestens viermonatige Aufenthalte der Studierenden in Deutschland (oder einem anderen deutschsprachigen Land), nach Studienjahr und Universität; nach Studienjahr und Universität Stj / Univ. VPU VU VDU 1 3 / 16% 1 / 4% 4 / 25% 2 3 / 17% 4 / 24% 3 / 20% 3 4 / 24% 2 / 13% 3 / 19% 4 15 / 68% 4 / 44% 3 / 29% gesamt / 33% 11 / 17% 13 / 21% Anzahl Stud. / %-Anteil an der gesamten Gruppe Die Differenz der erreichten Werte zum jeweiligen Gruppendurchschnitt 15 kann in der folgenden Tabelle 6 abgelesen werden. Links vom Schrägstich steht die durchschnittliche Abweichung der in der Untergruppe der Studierenden mit Deutschlandaufenthalt erreichten Werte zum Mittelwert des (ganzen) Gruppe, rechts vom Schrägstich die 15 Eine Gruppe im hier verwendeten Sinn wird durch die Zugehörigkeit zu einer Universität plus zu einem Studienjahr definiert, also z. B. 3. Stj. VPU. 177

178 Abweichung der in der Untergruppe der Zuhause Gebliebenen erreichten Werte. Es ist ersichtlich, dass die Studierenden, die einen Deutschlandaufenthalt absolviert haben, mehr oder weniger deutlich besser abschneiden als die Zuhause Gebliebenen. Für die auffällige und merkwürdige umgekehrte Abweichung mit geringfügig niedrigeren Werten (1%!) für die Studierenden, die einen Deutschlandaufenthalt absolviert haben, im 4. Stj. der VU findet sich keine sinnvolle Erklärung; man muss wohl davon ausgehen, dass es sich um eine zufällige Idiosynkrasie handelt. Tabelle 6: Abweichung der Ergebnisse von Studierenden mit / ohne einen mindestens viermonatigen Aufenthalt in Deutschland (oder einem anderen deutschsprachigen Land), gegenüber dem Mittelwert aller Studierenden in der jeweiligen Gruppe, nach Studienjahr und Universität VPU VU VDU Stj Punkte Prozentrang Punkte Prozentrang Punkte Prozentrang / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / -9-3 / +3-1 / / / EIN PUNKTUELLER VERGLEICH ZU 2005 Zuletzt kann ein punktueller Vergleich zum Sprachstand der Studierenden im Jahr 2005 gezogen werden. Aus einem früheren Erprobungsdurchgang stehen Daten für das 2. Stj. der VPU im Herbstsemester 2005 in Form von erreichten Punkten und Prozenträngen zur Verfügung. Diese Daten erlauben nun in einem kleinen Ausschnitt die Interpretation der Ergebnisse als die einer echten Längsschnittstudie. Die beiden Gruppen unterscheiden sich nicht signifikant, die Unterschiede sowohl bei den erreichten Punkten (Mittelwert 2005 > 2008) als auch beim Prozentrang (Mittelwert 2008 > 2005) bewegen sich im Rahmen zufälliger Abweichungen (5%-Fehlerniveau, t-test). Das Ergebnis erlaubt dennoch zwei Interpretationen: Entweder man schließt daraus, dass die Sprachkenntnisse der Studierenden entgegen der subjektiven Wahrnehmung vieler Universitätslehrender! in den letzten Jahren nicht geringer geworden sind, zumindest nicht was das 2. Stj. an der VPU betrifft, oder aber man konstatiert, dass der Sprachstand der Studierenden der VPU im 3. Semesters 2005 dem derer im 4. Semester 2008 entspricht, was einen leichten Rückgang der allgemeinen Sprachbeherrschung des Deutschen gleichkäme. Wie auch immer man dieses Ergebnis liest, es liefert einen deutlichen Hinweis darauf, dass keine Verschiebungen hin zu dramatisch schwächeren Sprachkenntnisse im Deutschen vorliegen. 178

179 Tabelle 7: Vergleich der Ergebnisse der Gruppen VPU 2. Stj. Nov und Mai 2008 VPU 2 Stj. TN Punkte Prozentrang Mittelwert min max Mittelwert min max SCHLUSSFOLGERUNGEN UND AUSBLICK Akzeptiert man den C-Test als ein sinnvolles Mittel zur allgemeinen Sprachstandsmessung was angesichts der Forschungslage unproblematisch sein dürfte und akzeptiert man weiterhin, dass sich auf Basis der Daten, die im Rahmen einer Testerprobung und nicht eines Tests gewonnen worden sind, dennoch solide Aussagen machen lassen, so können im Hinblick auf die allgemeine Sprachbeherrschung des Deutschen seitens der Studierenden der Germanistik an litauischen Universitäten im Jahr 2008 diese Schlussfolgerungen gezogen werden: Die Studierenden der Universität Vilnius (VU) weisen erwartungsgemäß bessere Sprachkenntnisse auf als die Studierenden der Pädagogischen Universität Vilnius (VPU) und diejenigen der Vytautas-Magnus-Universität in Kaunas (VDU). Die Studierenden der VPU und der VU erzielen ähnliche Lernfortschritte im Umfang von mit grober Abschätzung 2 GER-Niveaus; im Anfangsniveau liegen die VPU allerdings um ungefähr 1 GER-Niveau niedriger als diejenigen der VU, ebenso im Zielniveau. Die Studierenden der VDU erzielen relativ geringere Fortschritte bei den Sprachkenntnissen (~ 1 GER-Niveau). Es besteht erwartungsgemäß ein genereller positiver Zusammenhang zwischen einem längerem Deutschlandaufenthalt und den Sprachkenntnissen im Deutschen. Die Daten weisen die VPU als führend bei den Deutschlandaufenthalten der Studierenden aus. Betont werden soll abschließend noch einmal, dass in dieser Untersuchung lediglich die Sprachkenntnisse und nicht die Fachkenntnisse oder andere Eigenschaften der Studierenden oder gar der beteiligten Germanistischen Universitätsinstitute analysiert und abgeschätzt wurden. Die vorliegende Untersuchung kann bei einem erneuten, umfassenden Erprobungsdurchgang als Grundlage für eine echte Längsschnittstudie dienen, bislang sind Aussagen über Entwicklungen im Zeitverlauf nur mit gewissen Einschränkungen möglich. 179

180 180 Literaturverzeichnis 1. Arras, U., Eckes, Th., Grotjahn, R C-Tests im Rahmen des Test Deutsch als Fremdsprache (TestDaF): Erste Forschungsergebnisse // Der C-Test: theoretische Grundlagen und praktische Anwendungen. Bd. 4. Hrsg. von Grotjahn, R. Bochum: AKS-Verlag. S Eisenberg, P Grundriss der deutschen Grammatik. 2 Bde. Bd. I: Das Wort. Stuttgart, Weimar: Metzler. 3. Gogolin, I Sprachstandsdiagnosen // Deutsch als Fremdsprache: ein internationales Handbuch. Bd. 2. Hrsg. von Helbig, G., Götze, L., Henrici, G. und Krumm, H.-J. Berlin, New York: de Gruyter. S Grotjahn, R Der C-Test: State of the Art // Zeitschrift für Fremdsprachenforschung 6 (2), S Grotjahn, R Scrambled C-Tests: Untersuchungen zum Zusammenhang zwischen Lösungsgüte und sequentieller Textstruktur // Der C-Test: theoretische Grundlagen und praktische Anwendungen. Bd. 3. Hrsg. von Grotjahn, R. Bochum: Brockeyer. S Grotjahn, R. 2002a. Konstruktion und Einsatz von C-Tests: ein Leitfaden für die Praxis // Der C-Test: theoretische Grundlagen und praktische Anwendungen. Bd. 4. Hrsg. von Grotjahn, R. Bochum: AKS-Verlag. S Grotjahn, R. 2002b. Scrambled C-Tests: eine Folgeuntersuchung // Der C-Test: theoretische Grundlagen und praktische Anwendungen. Bd. 4. Hrsg. von Grotjahn, R. Bochum: AKS-Verlag. S Grotjahn, R., Klein-Braley, Ch., Raatz, U C-Tests: an overview // University language testing and the C-Test. Hrsg. von Coleman, J. A., Grotjahn, R. und Raatz, U. Bochum: AKS-Verlag. S Grotjahn, R., Tönshoff, W., Hohenbleicher, H Der C-Test im Italienischen: theoretische Überlegungen und empirische Analysen // Der C-Test: theoretische Grundlagen und praktische Anwendungen. Bd. 2. Hrsg. von Grotjahn, R. Bochum: Brockmeyer. S Maas, U., Mehlem, U Schriftkulturelle Ressourcen und Barrieren bei marokkanischen Kindern in Deutschland. Abschlussbericht zum Projekt der VolkswagenStiftung. Osnabrück: Univ., Institut für Migrationsforschung und interkulturelle Studien. 11. Raatz, U., Klein-Braley, Ch Introduction to language testing and to C-Tests // University language testing and the C-Test. Hrsg. von Coleman, J. A., Grotjahn, R. und Raatz, U. Bochum: AKS-Verlag. S Schifko, Manfred Prüfungen, Zertifikate, Abschlüsse als Planungskategorien für den Unterricht // Deutsch als Fremdsprache: ein internationales Handbuch. Bd. 2. Hrsg. von Helbig, G., Götze, L., Henrici, G. und Krumm, H.-J. Berlin, Nwe York: de Gruyter. S Templin, M. C (1957). Certain language skills in children: their development and interrelationships. Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press. 14. TestDaF-Institut (Hrsg.) Das ondaf-handbuch: eine Anleitung für Anwender des Online-Einstufungstests Deutsch als Fremdsprache (ondaf).

181 Santrauka Lietuvos universitetų vokiečių specialybės studentų kalbos mokėjimo lygio ir mokymosi pažangos nustatymas: C testo rezultatų lyginamoji analizė Klaus Geyer Straipsnyje dokumentuojama, kokį bendrąjį vokiečių kalbos mokėjimo lygį pasiekė trijų Lietuvos universitetų germanistikos studentai 2008 m. pavasario semestro pabaigoje. Pseudoišilginių pjūvių tyrimas leidžia analizuoti rezultatus kaip parodančius mokymosi pažangą ir netgi atlikti tikrą išilginių pjūvių palyginimą nedideliame fragmente. Duomenų pagrindu imami C testo užduočių bandymo rezultatai, kuriuos atliko TestDaF institutas. Kadangi atliktas tyrimas eksperimentinis, todėl gauti rezultatai nėra visiškai tikslūs, ir nustatymas lygio pagal Bendruosius Europos metmenis gali būti tik sąlyginis. Tačiau nepaisant šio apribojimo duomenų analizė leidžia atlikti esminius palyginimus ir suformuluoti vystymosi tendencijas. Tai pabrėžiama ir išsamioje įvadinėje diskusijoje apie C testo formatą. 181

182 ESP as a Part of the English Language Course at University Reflections of a Practitioner Ewa Grobelska, Anna Olkiewicz Nicolaus Copernicus University, 11 Gagarina St., Toruń, Poland, ewa.grobelska@umk.pl Abstract The aim of this article is to emphasize the extent of changes brought about by Poland s accession to the EU and subsequent widespread availability of career opportunities abroad for Polish professionals as well as their impact on the significance of ESP courses at tertiary level based on the example of Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Poland. The analysis of the survey carried out among students serves as a very important source of information of students needs and expectation concerning ESP courses. The discussion concentrates on ESP courses designed for students of Art History, European Studies and International Relations. The final part of the article provides tips for teachers and includes some authentic teaching aids utilized when designing the ESP course. Key-words: ESP, tertiary education, authentic teaching aids. INTRODUCTION The introduction of a new format of secondary school leaving examination in English, Poland s accession to the EU and subsequent widespread availability of career opportunities abroad for Polish professionals have changed the approach to foreign language teaching and learning at tertiary level in Poland. The ESP courses or course components which would equip students with language skills needed in their future career have become an urgent need. The aim of this article is to emphasise the significance of ESP courses at tertiary level as an answer to the demands of students in the 21 st century, to point out the obstacles encountered by teachers and to offer practical teaching tips utilized in our work at university. ESP has been taught at Nicolaus Copernicus University for many years; since the beginning of their career teachers have been encouraged to provide the students with the Englishes suitable for their fields of studies, however, the amount of time devoted to ESP varied and depended on teachers independent decisions. The forthcoming year, however, marks a new era of teaching English at our university, since the university authorities have decided that all students of undergraduate courses will take the final 182

183 exam in English For Communicative Purposes at B2 level. That will amount to 60% of the exam, and the remaining 40% will be covered by purely specialist language. This creates a challenge for teachers of English whose task is to design a course for students representing different fields of studies such as humanities or social sciences. Traditionally, ESP, subdivided into EAP (English for Academic Purposes) and EOP (English for Occupational Purposes) encompasses English for Science and Technology, English for Medical Purposes, for Legal Purposes, English for Management, Finance and Economics. However, it is obvious that for students representing such courses as history of art, conservation and restoration of monuments ESP does not necessarily mean English for Business or Legal Purposes. Thus the question arises what kind of language these students need? How much does it differ from General English? This article will attempt to answer these questions taking as an example courses for undergraduate students of the Fine Arts Faculty. 1. DIFFICULTIES Probably like every teacher of ESP, we encounter certain difficulties in ESP teaching: groups, although consisting of students doing the same course, may comprise learners at almost all language levels, even from A2 to C1 creating a gap in their General English competence various lengths of courses as well as frequency of lessons may not give students of different courses equal opportunities at examinations experienced and confident as teachers may feel in General English, given a new group all of a sudden they have to become experts at conservation and restoration of monuments, history, art, computer graphics, etc. Although some of the aforementioned problems may appear difficult to overcome they do not necessarily lower the standard of the course offered. Referring to the first point, according to Dudley-Evans and St John it is generally advantageous in language learning to divide groups by level - but in ESP homogeneity in the learners specific purposes is more important (Dudley-Evans, St John, 24) Unfortunately, some difficulties cannot be resolved by teachers because they require profound changes in language education at university, however, there are certain aspects which may be facilitated thanks to our better understanding of the role as ESP teachers. Reflecting on our teaching career we decided that the key to success in ESP teaching is: assessment of students needs and expectations; devising realistic syllabus; researching and designing teaching material; cooperating with students. 183

184 QUESTIONNAIRE - RESULTS In order to assess our students needs and expectations concerning the English language course at university we devised a short questionnaire consisting of 8 questions. Most of the students who answered the questions have been studying English at university for two or three terms; the subject areas were largely in the humanities and social sciences. The questionnaire was in two parts: the first three questions endeavoured to find out students attitude to English and the second part attempted to elicit their expectations of studying English at university. The main findings from the first part of the questionnaire were that the vast majority of students understand the importance of learning and using English and have many opportunities to use the language outside the classroom. Furthermore, among the prime reasons for learning English they included their future career, which emphasises the relevance of ESP courses or course components. However, the results are not clear-cut as students study different courses and some of them might prioritize General English if they feel that their general English competence is low. Speaking and listening are among the most desirable skills valued by learners of English which might indicate that they expect to practise these skills more or they experienced a lack of classroom activities focusing on these skills in their secondary school education. It is very positive to note that in terms of material preparation students do not passively accept teaching aids prepared by their teacher, but show willingness to prepare presentations, think of discussion topics etc. The more advanced the groups, the bigger the emphasis on students autonomy and the wider interest in authentic, that is, not simplified, materials. The choice of international examinations is determined by the subject students do at university. For instance, students of European Studies show some interest in Legal English or Business English while the lack of art-related certified examinations might explain the wider interest of students doing art subjects in general English examinations such as Cambridge or TELC. 3. QUESTIONNAIRE FORMAT I. On the scale 1-5 mark the importance of English language learning in your life (1 is least, 5 is the most important) a. unimportant 1% b. fairly important 1% c. important 22% d. very important 40% e. indispensable 36% II. What are your reasons for learning English? a. it s part of the curriculum 11% b. in view of my (future) job 60% c. to communicate with people all over the world 82%

185 d. other 5% III. Where (outside the classroom) do you have the opportunity to use English? a. at work 9% b. to communicate with people all over the world (incl. mailing) 56% c. reading authentic texts and/ or watching programmes in English 74,5% d. other 5% IV. The aim of English language course at university is to a. improve my general English competence 33% b. develop skills needed in my future professional career 29% c. offer the mixture of both aspects 47% d. other 2% V. What skills should be developed during the course? (you may mark more than one answer) a. speaking 94,5% b. reading 27% c. writing 34,5% d. listening 51% VI. My English language course should be based on a. a course book 22% b. materials prepared by a teacher 76% c. presentations and projects prepared by students on their field of studies 31% d. other 2% VII. ESP teaching materials used by a teacher should be a. authentic texts 85% b. simplified materials with explanations in my native language 15% VIII. What (if any) examinations would you be interested in taking? a. general English (FCE, CAE, TELC, IELTS, etc) 78% b. business English (BEC, etc) 23% c. legal English (ILEC, TOLES) 11% d. other 5% 4. SYLLABUS The syllabus devised for students of the Fine Arts Faculty which encompasses such courses as painting, sculpture, art education and conservation and restoration of monuments. This syllabus may also be applied to an art history course which is a part of the History Faculty at our university. When devising this syllabus we took into consideration various factors such as needs, aims, means, variables and constraints (R. R. Jordan, 53). The syllabus focuses on four traditional language skills, namely, listening, reading, writing and speaking as well as sub-skills and micro-skills e. g. skimming, scanning, reading for information and summarizing. Cognitive skills (related to language and learning skills) and communicative 185

186 skills, which focus on the effective ways of conveying information, are also emphasised. The form of the syllabus based on short descriptors helps both teachers and students identify what is being assessed and relates them to the Common European Framework (CEF), which is known to students from their secondary school education. The main aim of the ESP course based on this syllabus is to equip students with skills essential when they undertake studies abroad (e. g. scholarships, postgraduate courses) and apply for jobs in an English speaking environment either in Poland or abroad. Listening. Students can understand enough to follow extended speech, lecture, conversation on art-related topics including television and radio programmes and films. Reading. Students can understand long and complex texts related to their area of speciality with the occasional use of a dictionary, can scan through long and complex texts, locating relevant details, can identify the content and relevance of a written text on a wide range of professional topics (painting, sculpture, conservation and renovation of monuments, history of art) deciding whether closer study is worthwhile i.e. helpful in writing their essays, projects, diplomas etc., can understand texts likely to be encountered in professional or academic life. Spoken interaction. Students can use language flexibly for professional purposes e.g. oral presentation, discussion, interview including job interview, description of a work of art, process of renovation. Writing. Students can write clear, well-structured and detailed description of a work of art, artistic event etc., using specialist terminology, can write a summary of a given text, can take notes while listening to a lecture on an art-related topic so that the notes could also be useful to other people, can write a clear and well-structured application letter, invitation etc. 5. SAMPLE MATERIALS Below there are our suggestions of sample materials representing four different skills from the syllabus, the skills our students wish to develop. Listening. The first example concerns listening skills. Here the Internet with the great variety of podcasts is of enormous help to ESP teachers. A chosen podcast entitled Exploring Turner, Part 2: Invention (see bibliography) is a 6-minute discussion between Franklin Kelly, National Gallery of Art senior curator, and Tate Museum curator Ian Warrell about the life and work of J.M.W. Turner. The aim of this exercise is to teach or expand students note-taking ability while listening to an academic discussion. The following questions are meant to guide students through the main points of the discussion. 186

187 a) Pre-listening tasks. If necessary, pre-teach some expressions such as: Fluctuation - sudden change in something; Canvas a painting done with oil paints or a piece of cloth it is painted on; Blotches of paint coloured marks on something; Subject-matter what is being talked about or represented in art; Seascapes pictures or painting showing the sea; Watercolour paint you mix with water and use for painting pictures; Ambiguity having more than one meaning, difficult to understand; Cryptic deliberately mysterious, having secrets. b) Listening tasks. The speakers are going to talk about: Why are Turner s works considered unfinished according to Ian Warrell? In what way is the subject-matter important to Turner? Is there a fixed meaning of Turner s works? Why? Why not? c) Getting clarification. If students complain that they didn t understand or only partly understood what the speakers said they should be taught how to ask for clarification so that the speaker simply produces a repetition of what was said before. Encourage your students to ask the questions from the table, and having a script in front of you give relevant answers. Non-comprehension I m sorry but I didn t understand what you said about X Could you repeat What does X mean? Partial comprehension What did you mean when you said? Could you be more specific about? Expand a little on Give an example of Getting confirmation So what you re saying is that..? So you mean that? (Based on R. R. Jordan English for Academic Purposes. A guide and resource book for teachers) Reading, speaking. Students are given handouts with short extracts from novels and poems, their task is to read and to match the extracts to the paintings. A suggested list of paintings: John William Waterhouse The Lady of Shalott Eduard Gaertner The Friedrichsgracht, Berlin 187

188 188 Pieter de Hooch The Courtyard of a House in Delft Eugene Boudin Beach Scene, Trouville Antonello da Messina St. Jerome in his Study Reading texts: 1.Oblique light on the trite, on the brick and tile Immaculate masonry, and everywhere that Water tap, that broom and wooden pail To keep it so. House-proud, the wives Of artisans pursue their thrifty lives Among scrubbed yards, modest but adequate. Foliage is sparse, and clings. No breeze Ruffles the trim composure of those trees. From Courtyards in Delft Derek Mahon, Lying, robed in snowy white That loosely flew to left and right- The leaves upon her falling light- Through the noises of the night She floated down to Camelot: And as the boat - head wound along The willowy hills and fields among, They heard her singing her last song, The Lady of Shalott. (From The Lady of Shalott by Alfred Tennyson, 1833) 3. From my window, the deep solemn massive street. Cellar-shops where the lamps burn all day, under the shadow of top-heavy balconied facades, dirty plaster frontages embossed with scroll-work and heraldic devices. The whole district is like this: street leading into street of houses like shabby monumental safes crammed with the tarnished valuables and second-hand furniture of bankrupt middle-class. I am a camera with its shutter open, quite passive, recording, not thinking. Recording the man shaving at the window opposite and the woman in the kimono washing her hair, all this will have to be developed, carefully printed, fixed. (From Goodbye to Berlin by Christopher Isherwood, 1939) 4. I remember the sea when I was six And ran on wetted sands That were speckled with shells and the blowholes of clams Bedded secretly down in black muck

189 I remember the sun, fishy airs, rotting piers That reached far out into turquoise waters, And ladies in white who sprinkled light laughter From under their parasols... Where was it, that beach whose hot sand I troweled Day after day into my red tin pail? It s only in dreams now I sense it, unreal, At the end of an inner road no longer travelled. I remember the sea when I was six... ( by Frederick Morgan) 5. An arch never sleeps (Hindustani Proverb) Speaking. Students choose a statement referring to the nature of art and discuss it in their group/pair. Alternatively, students sit in two rows facing each other. After discussing the first quotation students sitting in one row move two chairs to the right changing their partner. Examples of quotations: Art should never try to be popular; the public should try to make itself artistic; Art is making something out of nothing and selling it; Every child is an artist. The problem is how to remain an artist once he grows up; Painting is silent poetry, and poetry is painting with the gift of speech. Writing. Students read an authentic job advertisement and respond to it writing an application letter (see, for instance, CONCLUSIONS Teaching ESP is a challenge for every teacher of English, especially if they have to select teaching aids from an academic discipline they are not familiar with. Being a multi-tasker might not be easy especially for teachers who got accustomed to General English feeling, authority in their role of language expert. Here a vital piece of advice is the following one: do not pretend in front of the students you know more than you really do; let them lead you through the intricacies of what they are experts at. Let them guide you and try to enjoy this journey of discovery. 189

190 References 1. Czarnecka-Cicha, B Osiągnięcia Maturzystów w roku Warszawa: CKE. sprawozdanie_ogolne_a.pdf. Accessed Dudley, E. T.& St John, M. J Developments in English for Specific Purposes. A multidisciplinary approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3. Jordan, R. R English for Academic Purposes. A guide and resource for teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 4. Langmuir, E Places in Art. London: National Gallery Press. 5. Sierocka, H The Role of the ESP Teacher. In: The Teacher No. 2 (56). 6. National Gallery of Art, USA, Videos and Podcasts. index.shtm Accessed ESP useful websites Intute - a free online service providing you with access to the very best Web resources for education and research. The interconnected guide to all arts, including visual arts and design arts: artandculture. com Santrauka Dėstytojo praktiko mintys apie anglų kalbą specialiesiems tikslams kaip sudėtinę universitetinio anglų kalbos kurso dalį Ewa Grobelska, Anna Olkiewicz Šio straipsnio tikslas yra parodyti, kokiu mastu Lenkijos įstojimas į Europos Sąjungą sukėlė pokyčius šalyje ir vėliau leido praplėsti karjeros galimybes Lenkijos specialistams užsienyje, taip pat nušviesti šių pokyčių svarbą anglų kalbos specialiesiems tikslams mokymui aukštojo mokslo sistemoje, remiantis Torunės N. Koperniko Universiteto Lenkijoje pavyzdžiu. Universiteto studentų apklausos analizė atskleidė studentų poreikius ir lūkesčius, susijusius su anglų kalbos specialiesiems tikslams mokymu. Straipsnyje daugiausiai kalbama apie anglų kalbos specialiesiems tikslams kursus, orientuotus į studentus, studijuojančius meno istoriją, tarptautinius santykius ir besigilinančius į Europos studijas. Paskutinėje straipsnio dalyje pateikti patarimai dėstytojams ir originalios metodinės medžiagos pavyzdžiai, kurie gali būti pritaikomi, kuriant anglų kalbos specialiesiems tikslams mokymo priemones. 190

191 Cultural Discourse in the Context of Foreign Language Teaching / Learning Abstract Regina Jocaitė Šiauliai University, 88 Vilniaus St., LT-76285, Šiauliai, Lithuania, rjocaite@one.lt The challenges of intercultural living are becoming the reality of our working and domestic life. A characteristic feature of contemporary societies is an intercultural dialogue when people have to demonstrate not only their linguistic competence but also awareness of their own culture and the culture of others, of their similarities and differences, how to relate to diversity and others identity. This has conditioned practices in and approaches to foreign language teaching / learning with the focus on the development of not only linguistic and communicative skills but also cultural and intercultural awareness. The paper is aimed at revealing the concept of intercultural competence, its constituent parts and pragmatic reasons for the inclusion of cultural issues into the foreign language course. Research revealed that the cultural discourse is not used to the full. On the basis of the findings a conclusion is drawn that despite some constraints (a teacher s experiences in multicultural matters may be rather limited, learners do not have a cultural focus in their studies, etc.) the benefits of the cultural discourse in language learning / teaching and preparing to face and handle cultural phenomena are acknowledged by both teachers and learners. It is the teacher s responsibility how to engage learners in discussion and comparison of the target and home culture through the medium of the foreign language and thus develop their awareness of the variety of socio-cultural life. Key words: culture, intercultural competence, cultural awareness, cultural discourse, home culture, target culture, attitudes. INTRODUCTION An intercultural dialogue, being a characteristic feature of contemporary societies, has conditioned new practices in and approaches to foreign language teaching / learning. Over the past twenty years it has been widely accepted that foreign language teaching is a complex process associated with communicative and social dimensions therefore should go beyond the emphasis on language skills (reading, listening, writing, speaking), acquiring of grammatical or lexical structures. This approach to foreign language teaching as the development of intercultural competence is supported by the aims of the foreign language course: 191

192 To enable learners to establish personal and professional relationships through the foreign language; To expose them to the culture of the target country; Research object: cultural discourse in teaching / learning a foreign language. Research aim: to get an insight into the present day situation of the inclusion of the culture dimension into the English language course taught at tertiary level to students not majoring in philology. Research tasks: To identify teachers practices of the inclusion of the culture (native and target) component into the course; To identify students attitudes to the culture component in the course and its role developing linguistic, social and communicative skills in the target language. Research methods: literature analysis, analysis of the practice of giving the English language course, questionnaire data analysis. Research sample. In order to reach the research aim in 2007 a questionnaire of two parts was developed and administered to the teachers of English and students at Šiauliai University. 15 university teachers of English and 120 students, 34 males and 72 females, randomly selected from the population of 1247 doing the course of English as a foreign language at Šiauliai University were surveyed. 1. INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE AND CULTURAL DISCOURSE WITHIN A FOREIGN LANGUAGE COURSE The challenges of intercultural living are becoming the reality of our working and domestic life. Under present conditions an ability to use a foreign language effectively in human interactions across cultures is of great value. Culture is a broad concept. The UNESCO describes culture as follows: the set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features of society; it encompasses art, literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems, traditions and beliefs (UNESCO, 2001). Intercultural competence refers to an ability to understand and interact effectively with people of different cultures, relate language and culture and relate the target culture to one s own culture ( The development of intercultural competence is emphasized in The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment, where it is stated that in order to participate in a variety of social and cultural contexts the knowledge of the society and culture of the community, in which the language is spoken, is necessary (CEFFL, 2001). In the work program Education and Training 2010 the concept of intercultural competence is defined as: Basic knowledge of major national and European cultural works; An ability to relate one s own culture to that of others; Openness to Europe s cultural and linguistic diversity; 192

193 An ability to retain identity combined with respect for diversity; Willingness to overcome stereotypes. Acquiring cultural knowledge of the target language is often called the fifth skill in language learning, therefore exposing learners to cultural differences along with the structural differences of the native and target language is vital. Byram (1994, 2002) writes that the aims of language teaching are to develop both linguistic and cultural competence, what is named as intercultural communicative competence. He maintains that thus learners become able to understand and accept people from other cultures as individuals with other perspectives, values and behaviours. He is supported by Valette (1996), who states that a foreign language learner should learn not only how to express him/herself in the foreign language but also be aware of the intentions, expectations and behaviour of a native speaker, therefore he / she needs to get acquainted with cultural differences, worldviews and behaviours. Kramsch (1993) says that if we regard a language as a social practice culture becomes the core of language teaching. She claims further that culture awareness must be viewed both as enabling language proficiency and as being the outcome of reflection on language proficiency. Omaggio (1993) says that a teacher s role is not to impart facts about the target culture but to help students gain skills to understand phenomena in the target culture and thus be prepared for various situations. According to Martin et al., (Martin, Vaughn, 2007) cultural (intercultural) competence is comprised of four components: Awareness of one's own cultural worldview; Knowledge of different cultural practices and worldviews; Positive attitude towards cultural differences; Skills and practices of cultural competence. Kramsch (1998) defines intercultural competence as a combination of attitudes, knowledge, skills, sub-skills, awareness and self-awareness: Attitudes, basis of intercultural competence: openness to and interest in other people s values, behaviours and beliefs, willingness to admit diversity; Knowledge of differences in things and practices, an ability to see them in a positive light rather than as differences; Skills of interpreting and relating: an ability to recognise, understand, explain differences and relate them to one s own reality; Skills of discovery and interaction: knowledge how to acquire new knowledge, attitudes and skills from other people and an ability to use them in interactions; Skills of comparison: an ability to analyse, compare and evaluate others behaviours, beliefs and meanings by contrasting them to one s own, emphatic and analytical understanding of the similarities and divergences between one s own culture and the culture of others; Cultural awareness: awareness of cultural variety, an ability to depart from ethnocentricity; 193

194 Self-awareness: critical awareness of oneself and one s values as well as those of other people. In sum, intercultural competence includes: a) Knowledge (insight into and awareness of the native culture and the target culture); b) Positive attitudes towards the foreign culture; c) Culturally appropriate behaviour. According to Valette (1996), culture in the language classroom includes two major components: the anthropological or sociological culture (values, attitudes, customs and daily activities of people, their ways of thinking, etc.) and the history of civilization, traditionally understood as geography, history and the achievements in the sciences and the arts. The target culture can be introduced in two ways: planning the discourse in advance or improvising. A more systematic way is when a teacher plans incorporation of the cultural discourse in advance, focuses on specific cultural aspects and selects authentic material for reading / listening / watching and further discussion. Although it is understandable that culture cannot be learned or acquired in a few lessons about celebrations or traditions of the country where the language is spoken, cultural awareness may be developed in a spontaneous way as well, e.g., when students encounter specific vocabulary while reading a piece of work or when questions pertaining to the target culture are raised by students, discussed and compared to the home culture. 2. RESEARCH RESULTS The first item on the questionnaire for teachers, an open-ended question What is your attitude towards the inclusion of the cultural discourse into the foreign language course? was aimed to clarify respondents attitudes towards the cultural discourse. Their answers included: It is a language teacher s task to expose learners to the target language and culture; Discourses on the target culture are engaging; Culture issues contribute to learners communicative and linguistic advancement; Cultural discourses arouse interest in and curiosity about the target country and its culture and motivate learners to learn the language, etc. It shows that in general teachers acknowledge the importance of the cultural discourse. The question How often do you discuss the target / home culture in your classes? dealt with practices of the inclusion of the cultural discourse into the foreign language course. They commented: We have no time to talk about the target culture regularly; The course should last at least 4 semesters; I lack exposure to the target culture and cultural sensitivity myself; I lack confidence to be a guide of something that is not really a part of me; I experience fear of losing face; I am uncertain about what culture components should be included into the course; My learners do not have a cultural focus in their studies; I need guidelines and methods how to develop the connections between the home and the target culture in classroom practices; Although there are pages or culture corners in course books they focus 194

195 on second language rather than on foreign language learners; I doubt whether authentic material from magazines, newspapers available on the Internet is enough to give learners and myself personal experience in the target culture; Culture issues are more relevant when the language is taught in a multilingual, multicultural setting. These responses show that the issue is rather challenging for teachers and practices are rather fragmented. The questionnaire developed for students consisted of 7 items; they were also asked to provide comments on some of the statements or responses. Responding to the question Why are you doing the English course? they had to mark one of the following statements in the questionnaire: Because it is compulsory; The knowledge and skills will be necessary in the future; I would not study if it was not compulsory. Their answers showed a positive attitude towards the issue and awareness of its benefit (Fig. 1) Compulsory Necessary 78 Wouldn't study Figure 1. Need for the foreign language course (in %) Another question focused on respondents experiences in the target language. They recalled face-to-face interactions (75%), Internet chatting, ing (89%), watching television, listening to music (45%), reading books, newspapers or magazines (5%) (Fig. 2) Face-toface 75 Internet 89 Watching TV Reading Figure 2. Modes of using the English language (in %) Respondents descriptions of their face-to-face social encounters in several words ranged from It was a stressful situation; I felt dumb or I don t know to It was a nice chat. Further these comments were grouped into: pleasant experiences, neutral experiences, unpleasant experiences. Analysis showed that 89% of respondents rated these experiences as unpleasant rather than pleasant or neutral. It should be noted that all surveyed were of intermediate upper intermediate level. Worth attention are the reasons for experienced discomfort or failure. According to 107 of those who were dissatisfied with their performance, the majority indicated 195

196 that they lacked lexis / information to speak about the target culture, the home culture caused fewer difficulties (Table 1). An assumption can be made that while dealing with the cultural discourse in the English language classes the teacher has to focus both on the target and home culture elements. Table 1. Reasons for failure in face-to-face interactions Item Frequency % 1. Lack of lexis to speak about the target culture Lack of lexis to speak about the home culture Lack of information on the target culture Lack of information on the home culture Fear to be misunderstood Psychological constraint It was interesting to identify respondents understanding of the culture concept therefore a question What is culture according to you? was asked. Research showed that their understanding of the concept was very broad and included: customs and traditions (68%), literature (65%), history (60%), cultural heritage (53%), the language (52%), historical events (49%), folk songs and dances (40%), food (30%), behaviour norms (25%) (Fig. 3). Traditions Literature 40 History 65 Cultural heritage 49 Language Historical events Folk songs and dances Food Behaviour Figure 3. The concept of culture as perceived by respondents (in %) Other items on the questionnaire directly dealt with respondents attitudes towards the role of the cultural discourse as a part of the foreign language course and its effect on the outcomes of doing the course (Table 2). 196

197 Table 2. Learners attitudes towards the inclusion of the cultural discourse Item 1. The cultural discourse should be included into the foreign language course 2. Culture issues help me develop Strongly Agree Have no Disagree Strongly agree opinion disagree 12% 63% 8% 7% 10% reading skills 56% 23% 21% writing skills 3% 25% 72% listening skills 68% 12% 20% speaking skills 89% 4% 7% When asked to provide comments on their choice on item 1, respondents wrote: It is a part of general education; A part of university curriculum; Broadens mind; Indispensable in social / personal encounters; Develops communication skills; Important for establishing and maintaining relations; Builds confidence; Engaging; Helps to understand other people, etc. Regarding respondents perceptions of the skills to improve most by the cultural discourse (item 2), respondents named speaking (89%), next came listening (68%), reading (56%), and writing (3%) (Table 2). Answers show that learners understand the benefits of cultural issues in the course. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The study showed that the cultural discourse is not exploited to the full for several reasons. Firstly, culture integration into the foreign language course is a demanding experience for a non-native speaking teacher because he/she has to be knowledgeable not only in the issue but also in the methods of integrating the cultural discourse in language classes. Suggestion is that his / her main concern should be not how much information to include into the course but how to engage learners in discussions: to give a chance to explore a particular culture element of the target country, discuss and compare it with the corresponding element of their own culture. Although culture studies are not the focus of this course given to non-philology university students, the majority of respondents (both the teachers and the students) supported the idea that the cultural discourse should be a part of the course as it undoubtedly has much to offer to the development of learners linguistic, communicative, social and intercultural competence. In any task and content oriented activity, while doing research on any element of the target culture, making a presentation or writing a report, learners become familiarized with specific words used in a given context and build confidence in using them. Reading a magazine article can serve as a starting point for discussions, reflection and comparison. The cultural discourse increases learners curiosity about and interest in the target (as well as home) culture and fosters motivation to learn the language in order to discuss and be able to compare. 197

198 Of no less importance is the issue of raising learners cultural awareness and shaping their attitudes towards the target and native societies. While learning about the target country, its culture and people they are learning about themselves too. The cultural dimension, broadly and sensitively addressed at tertiary level, can give university students opportunities to prepare for successful intercultural social encounters in a globalising world. Further study on the correlation of learners linguistic competence and their cultural knowledge might support an idea that learners with better linguistic competence tend to have more cultural knowledge and vice versa. Another implication might be proved that learners need to explore their own culture, acquire necessary lexis and build confidence talking on a familiar to them phenomenon of the home culture be it traditions, customs, rituals, life style, work and leisure habits, etc. so they were able to discuss and compare with the target culture and thus successfully deal with cultural differences. References 1. Byram, M., Gribkov, B., Starkey, H Developing the Intercultural Dimension in Language Teaching. Council of Europe, Strasbourg. dg4/linguistic/source/guide_dimintercult_en.pdf Accessed Byram, M. (ed.) Culture and Language Learning in Higher Education. Bristol, PA: Multilingual Matters, Ltd. 3. Education and Training European Commission, education/policies/2010.doc Accessed Kramsch, C Language and Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 5. Kramsch, C Context and Culture in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 6. Languages: Conflict or Coexistence? UNESCO, Accessed Martin, M., Vaughn B Strategic Diversity and Inclusion. San Francisco, CA: DTUI Publications Division Accessed Omaggio, A Teaching Language in Context. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle. 10. The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Cambridge University Press, linguistic/sources/framework_en.pdf Accessed Valette, R. M The Culture Test. In Valde J. M. (ed.). Culture Bound: Bridging the Cultural Gap in Language Teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press. 198

199 Santrauka Kultūrinis diskursas užsienio kalbos mokymo/-si kontekste Regina Jocaitė Gyvenimas tarp kelių kultūrų tampa mūsų kasdienybės iššūkiu darbe ir privačiame gyvenime. Būdingas dabartinių visuomenių bruožas yra tarpkultūrinis dialogas, kurio metu žmonės demonstruoja ne tik lingvistinę kompetenciją, bet ir tai, kaip suvokia savo ir kitą kultūrą, jų panašumus ir skirtumus, koks yra kalbančiojo santykis su skirtybėms ir kitokia tapatybe. Tai sudaro sąlygas įsigalėti tokiai svetimų kalbų mokymo/-si praktikai ir nuostatoms, kai dėmesio centre tampa ne tik besimokančiųjų kalbinių ir komunikacinių gebėjimų lavinimas, bet ir kultūrinės ir tarpkultūrinės savivokos ugdymas. Šiame straipsnyje nagrinėjama tarpkultūrinės kompetencijos sąvoką, jos sudedamosios dalys ir pragmatinės kultūros diskurso įtraukimo į užsienio kalbos kursą priežastys. Tyrimas parodė, kad kultūrinis diskursas nėra pilnai išnaudojamas užsienio kalbos mokyme/-si. Tyrimas leidžia daryti išvadą, kad nepaisant tam tikrų sunkumų (mokytojo tarpkultūrinė patirtis gali būti gana ribota, kultūros pažinimas nėra studijų objektas ir t.t.) tiek dėstytojai, tiek ir studentai pripažįsta kultūrinio diskurso naudą mokantis užsienio kalbos ir siekiant pažinti ir perprasti kultūrinius reiškinius. Dėstytojui tenka atsakomybė, kaip integruoti abiejų šalių socio-kultūrinį diskursą per kalbos mokymą/-si ir tokiu būdu supažindinti su socialinio-kultūrino gyvenimo kontekstų įvairove. 199

200 Auf dem Weg zu einer Mitteleuropäischen Niederlandistik... Konzept des neuen Berufsorientierten Joint-Bachelor-Studiums Dutch Language, Literature And Culture In A Central European Context (DCC) Jacek Karpiński Universität Wrocław, Erasmus Lehrstuhl für Niederländische Philologie ul. Kuźnicza 21-22, Wrocław, Polen, jacek.karpinski@uni.wroc.pl Abstract Since October 2008, students from the Czech Republic (Olomouc, Brno), Austria (Vienna), Poland (Wroclaw), Hungary (Budapest, Debrecen) and Slovakia (Bratislava) can choose a new bachelor degree entitled Dutch Language, Literature and Culture in a Central European Context (DCC). These studies will offer international training with a practical focus: they are therefore a good alternative to regular Dutch studies. The focus of DCC is the language and culture of the Low Countries (The Netherlands and Belgium) in the context of Central Europe. Students doing this course will concentrate on both Dutch Language and Central Europe. In the DCC study, students will spend at least one semester at one of the partner universities. Also during their studies, DCC students will study a second foreign language from the region and attend classes in that context (history, economics, the European Union). The purpose of this article is to present this project in more depth and reflect on intercultural problems that are associated with such projects. Key-words: international training, Dutch studies, Central Europe, partner universities, intercultural problems. EINLEITUNG 16 Ab Oktober 2008 können Studierende aus der Tschechischen Republik (Olmütz, Brno), Österreich (Wien), Polen (Wrocław), Ungarn (Budapest, Debrecen) und der Slowakei (Bratislava) mit dem neuen Joint-Bachelor-Studium Dutch Language, Literature and Culture in a Central European Context (DCC) beginnen. Dieses Studium versteht 16 Einige Passagen in diesem Artikel sind aus unserer Webseite übernommen: ac.at 200

201 sich als praxisorientierte und länderübergreifende Alternative zum gewöhnlichen Studium der Niederlandistik. Der thematische Fokus liegt auf der Sprache und Kultur der Niederlande und Flandern im Kontext des neuen Mitteleuropas. Die Studierenden lernen also nicht nur die Sprache, Literatur und Kultur der Niederen Lande, aber erwerben auch eine zweite Fremdsprache aus der Region und besuchen Lehrveranstaltungen zum mitteleuropäischen Kontext (Geschichte, Ökonomie, Europäische Union). Das Ziel dieses Beitrags ist es, dieses Konzept näher vorzustellen und sich mit den Problemen der Interkulturalität, die mit solchen Projekten verbunden sind, auseinanderzusetzen. 1. NIEDERLANDISTIK IN WROCŁAW UND IHRE ZUSAMMENARBEIT MIT ANDEREN UNIVERSITÄTEN IN MITTEL- UND OSTEUROPA Die Niederlandistik an der Universität in Wrocław, gegründet von Norbert Morciniec, entwickelt sich schon seit den 60. Jahren des 20. Jahrhunderts, am Anfang als Lektorat, dann, seit 1975 als Komplementfach im Rahmen der Deutschen Philologie und heutzutage seit 1990 als unabhängiger Erasmus Lehrstuhl für Niederländische Philologie unter Stanisław Prędota, Stefan Kiedroń und ab Oktober 2008 unter Bolesław Rajman. Von Anfang an unterhält der Erasmus Lehrstuhl lebhafte wissenschaftliche Kontakte zu anderen mittel- und osteuropäischen Universitäten, die Breslauer Niederlandisten beteiligen sich an Arbeiten internationaler wissenschaftlicher Gremien. Zusammen mit unseren Partnern aus Mittel- und Osteuropa kooperiert die Breslauer Niederlandistik schon seit Jahren in verschiedenen Projekten und Forschungsplatformen, z.b. Literatur im Kontext 17, CEEPUS 18 (Central European Exchange Programme for University Studies) und Comenius (Vereinigung der Universitätslehrenden und Studierenden der niederländischen Sprache in Mitteleuropa). 17 Die Forschungsplattform Literatur im Kontext analysiert und betrachtet den Kulturtransfer als einen dynamischen Prozess. Sie versucht zu zeigen, dass es beim Austausch zwischen Kulturen (Literaturen, Genres...) um eine Wechselbeziehung geht, die (national orientierte) Konzepte dekonstruiert. Gleichzeitig demonstriert sie, dass die Ähnlichkeit und die Unterschiedlichkeit verschiedener Kulturen im Transfer auf der Ebene, in der sie einander begegnen, sichtbar werden. Auf der Forschungsplattform werden nicht nur gemeinsame Forschungsresultate im Bezug auf Literatur im Kontext, sondern auch die Resultate der Teilprojekte der Projektpartner veröffentlicht. Ausdrücklich sind auch junge Wissenschaftler zur Mitarbeit eingeladen. ( ac.at/node/13725, Stand ) 18 CEEPUS ist ein Austausch- und Stipendienprogramm, das die akademische Mobilität (von Studierenden, graduierten Studierenden und Universitätslehrenden) in Zentraleuropa fördern soll. Es wird mit kompletten Netzwerken und Programmen gearbeitet, die miteinander kommunizieren und so optimale Austauschbedingungen untereinander aushandeln können. Hierbei sollen die spezifischen typischen Eigenschaften einer Region betont und somit zur europäischen Integration beigetragen werden. ( html, Stand ) 201

202 Das neuste Projekt, an dem Erasmus Lehrstuhl zusammen mit sechs anderen Universitäten in Mittel- und Osteuropa teilnimmt, ist das BA-DCC (Bachelor in Dutch Language, Literature and Culture in a Central European Context), das sich zum Ziel setzt, niederländische Sprache, Literatur und Kultur in einen größeren Kontext, nämlich in den der Projektpartner, zu bringen. Die beteiligten Universitäten (Budapest, Debrecen, Brno, Olmütz, Wrocław, Wien und Bratislava), erfahrene, dynamische und schnell wachsende Zentren für das Studium der niederländischen Sprache, Literatur und Kultur in Mitteleuropa, formen einen Pool mit wichtiger Expertise: Curriculum-Entwicklung, Übersetzungswissenschaften, Zivilisationsgeschichte, Imagologie, Beziehungen zwischen Ost- und Westeuropa, technische und wirtschaftsbezogene Sprache, Terminologie, europäische Literatur im Kontext und Literaturgeschichte im europäischen Kontext. Das Studium ist sehr praktisch orientiert und sollte die Studenten für unterschiedliche konkrete Berufe auf dem Arbeitsmarkt vorbereiten. Außerdem stärkt DCC die Mehrsprachigkeit der Studierenden und festigt die kulturelle Identität der beteiligten Länder und die Position des Studiums der niederländischen Sprache und Kultur in Mitteleuropa. Die Einführung dieser Studienrichtung stärkt die langjährige Kooperation und berücksichtigt bzw. nutzt gleichzeitig die unterschiedlichen Ausrichtungen der beteiligten Universitäten. 2. DCC ALS LÄNDERÜBERGREIFENDES STUDIUM DER NIEDERLÄNDISCHEN SPRACHE, KULTUR UND LITERATUR 2.1. Allgemeine Charakteristik des DCC-Studiums DCC (Dutch Language, Literature an Culture in a Central European Context) ist ein Studium, das gemeinsam von 7 Universitäten in Mittel- und Osteuropa angeboten wird: KRE Universität Budapest (Ungarn) Universität Debrecen (Ungarn) Masaryk Universität Brno (Tschechien) Palacký Universität Olmütz (Tschechien) Universität Wrocław (Polen) Universität Wien (Österreich) Komenský Universität Bratislava (Slowakei) Als DCC-Student absolviert man also das gleiche Studium wie die DCC-Studierenden der sechs anderen Partneruniversitäten. Der thematische Fokus dieses Studiums, das 3 Jahre dauert und dessen Studienausmaß 180 ECTS beträgt, liegt auf der Sprache, der Literatur und Kultur der Niederlande und Belgiens im Kontext des neuen Mitteleuropas. Die Studierenden müssen dementsprechend neben Freude an der Entdeckung der Niederlande und Belgien auch Interesse für die Heimatregion im weitesten Sinne mitbringen. Niederländischvorkenntnisse werden nicht vorausgesetzt, denn das Studium beginnt mit einem Modul für Spracherwerb auf Anfängerniveau. 202

203 Alle Studierenden beginnen ihr Studium an der jeweiligen eigenen Universität. Wichtig dafür ist die eigene Motivation und dass die Studierenden den Zugangsvoraussetzungen des eigenen Landes entsprechen. Für zukünftige DCC-Studenten haben wir in Wrocław zusätzlich ausreichende Kenntnisse der englischen Sprache als eine der Voraussetzungen gestellt, weil unsere Studenten im 2. und 3. Studienjahr die Möglichkeit haben, die Vorlesungen zum mitteleuropäischen Kontext auf Englisch zu belegen Das DCC-Curriculum Das DCC-Curriculum stellt die Grundlage des gesamten Programms dar. Aufbauend auf der Basis der allgemeinen Struktur und der für alle gleichsam geltenden Rahmenbedingungen hat jede Universität ein eigenes Curriculum entwickelt. Alle bieten innerhalb der vorgegebenen Struktur Lehrveranstaltungen an, die zur eigenen Expertise passen. Dadurch liegt der Schwerpunkt innerhalb des DCC-Studiums an jeder Universität an einer etwas anderen Stelle. Der Vorteil für die Studierenden ist es, dadurch mehr Auswahl für die eigene Spezialisierung zu haben. Der modulare Charakter des DCC-Curriculums ermöglicht den Studierenden, ihr Studium an verschiedenen Universitäten zu absolvieren. Das Curriculum besteht aus zehn Gruppen von Lehrveranstaltungen, den sgn. Modulgruppen, die an allen Partneruniversitäten identisch sind. Das Curriculum besteht aus 2 Teilen: Basis Curriculum (90 ECTS) Joint Curriculum (90 ECTS) DCC-Curriculum (180 ECTS) Basis Curriculum (90 ECTS) Joint Curriculum (90 ECTS) Erwerb einer Fremdsprache eines der Partnerländer (15 ECTS) Semester an einer der Partneruniversitäten (30 ECTS) Interkulturelles, mitteleuropäisches Modul (30 ECTS) Ab. 2. DCC-Rahmencurriculum Berufsvorbereitendes Projekt und Abschlussarbeit (15 ECTS) 203

204 Basis Curriculum Es werden die Sprache, die Literatur und Kultur der Niederlande und Belgiens gelernt. Die Module im Basis Curriculum werden von jeder Universität selbstständig angeboten: Spracherwerb: Basis Einführung Spracherwerb: Aufbau Spracherwerb: Vertiefung Sprachwissenschaft Kultur und Literatur Joint Curriculum Es wird eine zweite Fremdsprache aus der Region gelernt. DCC-Studenten besuchen auch Lehrveranstaltungen zum mitteleuropäischen Kontext auf dem Gebiet der Geschichte, Wirtschaft und der Europäischen Union. Das Joint Curriculum besteht aus Modulen, die DCC-Studierende aus allen Ländern absolvieren können: Sprache und Kultur im Kontext Mitteleuropäischer Kontext Zweite Fremdsprache (Deutsch, Ungarisch, Tschechisch, Polnisch, Slowakisch) Abschlussmodul Der modulare Charakter des DCC-Curriculums bedeutet natürlich, dass man während des Studiums ständig mit den Studierenden der Partneruniversitäten in Kontakt kommt. Um das alles zu ermöglichen, absolvieren die DCC-Studierenden einen Teil der Lehrveranstaltungen via E-Learning. Da man auch im Fachunterricht zum besseren Verstehen des eigenen kulturellen Kontexts beitragen kann, haben wir uns entschieden, solche Kurse an DCC-Studenten anzubieten, in denen die Problematik des Eigenen und des Fremden behandelt wird. Außerdem wird von den Studenten die physische Mobilität erwartet. Jeder Student muss mindestens ein Semester an einer Partneruniversität studieren, wo man u.a. einen Sprachkurs in der Landessprache besucht. Für diese Zeit im Ausland werden Stipendien im Rahmen von Erasmus und CEEPUS zugesagt. DCC bedeutet also für die Studenten, dass sie neben der typischen philologischen Fächern wie Spracherwerb Niederländisch, Geschichte der niederländischen Literatur, Beschreibende Grammatik des Niederländischen, Geschichte der Niederlande und Belgiens, Kulturkunde, auch an Spezialisierungslehrveranstaltungen (Einführung in die interkulturelle Kommunikation, niederländische Sprache, Literatur und Kultur im mitteleuropäischen Kontext, Ökonomie und Geschichte Zentraleuropas und der EU) teilnehmen. Außerdem bekommen sie ein Paket der allgemein bildenden Fächer wie Philosophie, Latein, Informatik und Sport. Jeder DCC-Student 19 ist auch verpflicht um im 3. Studienjahr ein 4-wöchiges Praktikum bei einem Betrieb, der sich mit den 19 Hier wird die Situation an der Universität in Wrocław beschrieben. Andere Universitäten bieten in dem Abschlussmodul statt Praktikum praxisorientierte Seminare und Konversatoria für Diplomanden. 204

205 Niederlanden und mit Mitteleuropa beschäftigt, zu absolvieren. In Frage kommen z.b. Reisebüros, die ihre Ausflüge sowohl in die Niederlande als auch nach Ungarn, Tschechien, Österreich und in die Slowakei organisieren oder Firmen, die mit Partnern aus Mitteleuropa zusammenarbeiten und sich mit den Niederlanden und/oder mit Belgien beschäftigen. Eine größere Wahlmöglichkeit für die Studenten und ein viel breiteres Betätigungsfeld als im Zuge eines traditionellen Studiums an einer einzigen Universität ergibt sich auch aus der Tatsache, dass jede Partneruniversität die sgn. virtuellen Kursen (E-Learning-Module 20 ) entworfen hat. In jedem Semester sollen 7 verschiedene virtuelle Kurse angeboten werden, aus denen die DCC-Studenten relativ frei wählen können. Teile des Curriculums werden also als virtuelle Seminare oder Vorlesungen angeboten, was eine noch größere Flexibilität zulässt. Die zentralen Aspekte der E-Learning sind eine innovative Strukturierung der virtuellen Kurse, lebenslanges Lernen und Zugang zur Studienrichtung auch für Studierende, die nicht immer anwesend sein können. Die Studierenden erhalten Unterstützung durch Online-Kommunikationsplatformen, Diskussionsforen, -Kontakt und ausgeklügelte Lernmanagementsysteme. Das DCC-Studium wird abhängig von der Universität mit einer Diplomarbeit oder einer Diplomprüfung beendet. Am Ende eines DCC-Studiums bekommt man ein Zeugnis der jeweils eigenen Universität. Dieses Zeugnis ist ein Jointdiplom, d.h. dass es im Namen aller Partneruniversitäten ausgestellt wird und in fünf Ländern bekannt und anerkannt ist. Zusätzlich zu einem Zeugnis bekommt man ein Supplement in dem die Fächer, die man absolviert hat, genannt werden. DCC-Bachelors erhalten damit Zugang zu den Master-Studiengängen der Niederlandistik in Mitteleuropa. Nach Ablauf des Studiums sollten die Absolventen dieser Studienrichtung imstande sein, ihre Argumente und Gedanken, die mit der niederländischen Sprache, Literatur und Kultur, mit der Gesellschaft, Geschichte und Geographie der Niederlande und Belgiens zu tun haben, auf Niederländisch zu präsentieren. Da aber dieses Studium international orientiert ist, sollte der Absolvent auch über große interkulturelle Fähigkeiten verfügen, allgemeine Kenntnisse im Bereich der Ökonomie, des Rechts, der Europäischen Union haben und vorbereitet sein um mit Hilfe der modernen Technologien privat und geschäftlich in einer multikulturellen und mehrsprachigen Region Mitteleuropas 20 Im Rahmen von DCC wurden bis jetzt folgende Module entwickelt: KULTUR: Kunstgeschichte, Flandern und Identität, Kulturelle Belange, Kultur, Literatur und Kontext: Interkulturelle Einführung, Klassische Denker der Niederen Lande; LITERATUR: Institutioneller Ansatz in der niederländischen Literatur, Niederländische Literatur in der ersten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts, Rezeption der niederländischen Literatur in Zentraleuropa im 20. Jahrhundert, Einführung in die Literaturtheorie, Ältere Literatur im aktuellen Kontext, Hundert Kurzgeschichten im Gespräch, Selbstbild in der niederländischen Literatur; SPRACHE: Übersetzungswissenschaft, EU-Terminologie, Obrigkeitsterminologie, Schreibfertigkeit, Soziolinguistik, Morphologie, Geschäftskorrespondenz, Juristische Sprache im Niederländischen, Einführung in die niederländische Sprachwissenschaft. 205

206 kommunizieren zu können. Dabei sollen ihm die Kenntnisse der Fremdsprache aus der Region (Polnisch, Tschechisch, Slowakisch, Ungarisch, Deutsch) helfen. 3. INTERKULTURELLE ASPEKTE DES DCC-STUDIUMS Da DCC ein internationales Projekt ist, in dem Studierende und Lehrende miteinander oft und eng in Kontakt kommen müssen, muss man darauf Rücksicht nehmen, dass die interkulturellen Aspekte behandelt werden. Die Vielfalt der Kulturen und Sprachen in Mitteleuropa ist einerseits eine Quelle der Kreativität und Inspiration. Andererseits zieht sich Angst vor dem Unbekannten, vor dem Fremden, wie ein roter Faden durch unser ganzes Leben. Der Kontakt mit dem Fremden löst in uns heftige Emotionen aus Ablehnung, Angst, Empörung oder in extremen Fällen sogar Ekel. Sehr oft wird eine Konfrontation mit dem Fremdartigen schon im Ansatz vermieden, z.b. durch Ignorierung. Wenn aber ein friedliches Zusammenleben aller Leuten gescheitert sein soll, bleibt die Frage offen, welche Mittel man einsetzen muss, um so etwas zu erreichen. Kemp (1992, 119) weist darauf hin, dass die Rücksicht auf die anderen ( ) sich nicht auf Hilfeleistungen durch Institutionen und in ihrem Rahmen beschränken darf, sondern auch auf persönlicher Ebene verwirklicht werden muss. Dieses versuchen wir mit der Einführung des DCC-Studiums zu schaffen. Unser Ziel ist es, dass die DCC-Studenten Vermittler zwischen eigenen Kulturen sind. Man muss sich dessen bewusst sein, dass die Kulturen, obwohl die Kommunikation zwischen ihnen stattfindet, nicht miteinander sprechen. Es sind die Menschen, die es tun. Wir alle sind also Exponenten unserer Welt, unserer Kultur und alle diese Elemente bringen wir während unserer Kommunikation mit anderen Menschen mit. Die verbale Kommunikation, die Sprache, die wir sprechen, kann also nie ohne Übertragung dieser Kultur geschehen, in der diese Sprache gesprochen wird, in der wir aufgewachsen sind und in der wir leben. Um dieses zu erlernen, bekommen die DCC-Studenten schon im 1. Semester die Einführung in die interkulturelle Kommunikation angeboten. Das Ziel dieses Kurses ist es, dass die Studenten eine einleitende aber differenzierte Einsicht in die behandelte Problematik bekommen. Die dargestellten Gesichtspunkte fungieren als Hintergrund, auf deren Basis die gelernten Informationen erarbeitet werden können. Es wird also von den Studierenden erwartet, dass sie selbst über die Probleme, die in dem Kurs besprochen werden, reflektieren und eigene Meinung zu den verschiedenen interkulturellen Aspekten entwickeln. Der Prozess interkulturellen Lernens der DCC-Studenten sollte in folgenden Phasen verlaufen, die durch Grosch/Leenen (1999, 40) eingeführt werden. Der Student muss also: die generelle Kulturgebundenheit menschlichen Verhaltens erkennen und akzeptieren können; fremdkulturelle Muster als fremd wahrnehmen können, ohne sie (positiv oder negativ) bewerten zu müssen; eigene Kulturstandards identifizieren und ihre Wirkung in der Begegnung mit einer Fremdkultur abschätzen können; 206

207 Deutungswissen über bestimmte fremde Kulturen erweitern; relevante Kulturstandards identifizieren und dazu weitergehende Sinnzusammenhänge in der Fremdkultur herstellen können; Verständnis und Respekt für fremdkulturelle Muster entwickeln können; die eigenen kulturellen Optionen (z.b. selektiv fremde Kulturstandards übernehmen können) erweitern; zu und mit Angehörigen einer fremden Kultur konstruktive und wechselseitig befriedigende Beziehungen aufbauen, mit interkulturellen Konflikten praktisch umgehen können. Die interkulturellen Komponenten lassen sich auch in den E-Learning-Kursen entdecken, indem die DCC-Studenten aus fünf verschiedenen Ländern in einem (virtuellen) Klassenzimmer zusammen sitzen und lernen. Dort haben sie die Möglichkeit, sich wie bei einer traditionellen Lehrveranstaltung über den Stoff zu unterhalten, einander kennen zu lernen und Fragen zu stellen. Der daraus kommende Vorteil ist es, dass nicht nur Personen, die man zufällig an der eigenen Universität trifft, Auskunft geben können. Studierende aller Partneruniversitäten können und sollen sich z.b. am Forum beteiligen, so dass eine rege Kommunikation entsteht, die einen fruchtbaren Boden für die weitere Entwicklung des Studiums, der Studierenden und, im weiteren Sinne, auch der Niederlandistik und Forschung im Allgemeinen darstellt. SCHLUSSFOLGERUNGEN WARUM DCC? Vom DCC-Studium können sowohl Studenten als auch Universitäten profitieren. Sehr wichtig scheint in diesem Kontext die internationale Zusammenarbeit auf dem Länderniveau in Zentraleuropa (Studentenaustausch, Expertisenausbreitung, Entwicklung neuer Materialien). Das Joint-Curriculum trägt zur Internationalisierung jeder beteiligten Universität bei und kann gleichzeitig als ein Model-Curriculum für vergleichbare Programme mit anderen Schwerpunkten (Philologien) dienen. Das BA-DCC fördert außerdem die E-Learning-Kompetenz und die Sprachkompetenz der Studierenden (Niederländisch und eine Sprache aus der Region). Die Untersuchungen werden nicht nur auf dem komparativen Niveau, sondern auch aus der interkulturellen Perspektive, mit der Anwendung neuer Methoden (Kulturstudien, Kulturtransfer) durchgeführt. Die Studenten können auch internationale Erfahrungen sammeln (ein Semester an einer der Partneruniversitäten) und internationale Kontakte für ihre zukünftigen Untersuchungen und ihr Berufsleben knüpfen. Sie bekommen auch eine Chance, erste Erfahrungen in wissenschaftlicher Zusammenarbeit auf internationalem Niveau mit anderen DCC- Studenten und Lehrenden zu sammeln. Ansonsten darf man nicht vergessen, dass DCC praxisorientiert ist, was den Studenten helfen sollte, sich im ihrem beruflichen Leben zurechtzufinden. Die Absolventen dieser Studienrichtung sind auch mit der ökonomischen und politischen Situation in Mitteleuropa, mit der Geschichte dieser Region und mit der Europäischen Union vertraut. 207

208 Literaturverzeichnis 1. Baalen, Christine van Van student tot intermediair. Zakelijk Nederlands in Midden- en Oost-Europa. In: Heuvel, Paus van den (2000): Interculturaliteit. Interculturele aspecten van de Neerlandistiek in Midden en Oost-Europa, Bratislava: Stimul, S Grosch Harald, Leenen Wolf Rainer Bausteine zur Grundlegung interkulturellen Lernens. In: Bundeszentrale für Politische Bildung (Hrsg.): Interkulturelles Lernen. Arbeitshilfen für die politische Bildung, Bonn, S Heuvel, Paul van den Het specifieke karakter van de studie Nederlands extra muros. Pleidooi voor een interculturele neerlandistiek. In: Heuvel, Paul van den (2000): Interculturaliteit. Interculturele aspecten van de Neerlandistiek in Midden en Oost-Europa, Bratislava: Stimul, S Stand: Kemp, Peter Das beherrschte Leben: Biotechnologie und Entfremdung. In: Ekmann, Bjørn (Hrsg.): Fremdheit, Entfremdung, Verfremdung. Akten der Internationalen Interdisziplinären Symposiums, Kopenhagen, März 1990, Kopenhagen, S Škrlantová Marketa, Knap-Dlouhá Pavlína Prezentace evropského projektu DCC na vytvoření nového mezinárodního studia nizozemštiny; tvorba e-learningových modulů jako součásti výuky odborného jazyka. Abrufbar unter: univie.ac.at/node/7653. Stand: Santrauka Pakeliui į Centrinės Europos nyderlandistiką Naujos profesinės jungtinės bakalauro studijų programos Olandų kalba, literatūra ir kultūra Centrinės Europos kontekste metmenys Jacek Karpiński Straipsnyje pristatoma nauja jungtinė bakalauro studijų programa Dutch Language, Literature and Culture in Central European Context (DCC) Olandų kalba, literatūra ir kultūra Centrinės Europos kontekste, kurią nuo 2008 m. spalio mėn. gali rinktis Čekijos Respublikos (Olmütz, Brno), Austrijos (Viena), Lenkijos (Vroclavas), Vengrijos (Budapeštas, Debrecenas) ir Slovakijos (Bratislava) studentai. Šios studijos tai praktiškai orientuota alternatyva įprastoms nyderlandistikos studijoms. Pagrindinis dėmesys skiriamas Nyderlandų ir Flandrijos kalbai ir kultūrai naujosios Centrinės Europos kontekste. Studentai mokosi ne tik olandų kalbos, literatūros ir kultūros, bet išmoksta ir antrąją regiono užsienio kalbą, lanko užsiėmimus apie Centrinės Europos kontekstą (istoriją, ekonomiką, Europos Sąjungą). Straipsnio tikslas plačiau pristatyti šios programos metmenis ir panagrinėti tarpkultūrines problemas, kurios siejasi su tokiais projektais. 208

209 CLIL: European Developments leading to a Skill-Based Model for Teacher Education Abstract Christine Lechner Pedagogical University Tirol, Pastorstrasse 7, Innsbruck, Austria, christine.lechner@ph-tirol.ac.at Is teaching purely a local matter? In the field of CLIL we find specifically local developments within a broader European movement. The paper sets out to show links and synergies between European language policies on CLIL and their implementation in European situations and in Austria, in particular. It is now on the agenda to move from policy level to take a look at effects, practice and actual processes and also at the gap between school-based developments, teacher education and evaluation of outcomes. Some selected examples will lead to classroom practice. Thus, the focus in the first part is on a more general level. In the second part of the paper, the focus is on the potentials of methodologies with reference to working on themes of citizenship and, specifically, sustainable development. I would like to suggest how the interplay language learning skills may function in the CLIL context and also look at the role of lexis and structure. Key-words: CLIL, lexis, structure, teaching models. INTRODUCTION As one approach featuring on the agenda of European language learning strategies, Content & Language Integrated Learning has been much discussed over the past two decades. Taking a look back to the 1995 White Paper Teaching and Learning Towards the Learning Society, we find that both on the level of European language policies and also on the level of practical implementation there have been unforeseeable rapid developments during the interim period. The present paper sets out to discuss concepts for methodology against the background of policy intentions. In retrospect and in the light of developments, the recommendation from the White Paper appears very general. It could even be argued that secondary school pupils should study certain subjects in the first foreign language learned, as is the case in the European schools (White Paper on Education and Learning, 1995, 47) By this stage, teachers within mainstream systems had been developing their own bilingual models for some years. Furthermore, taking a broader view, learning con- 209

210 tent through the medium of a L2 was hardly a revolutionary phenomenon. Ensuing from the intrinsic nature of Europe, there have long been situations in which children growing up speaking a minority language in their family were educated in the national language of the country as in France, Spain, Wales and Austria to cite only a few examples. Conversely, there have been situations as in Wales in which pupils whose L1 was a global language received some subject education in a regional language. Whereas French became the language of instruction for the European upper classes throughout the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, we can go back further to education through classical languages in the Renaissance and the Middle Ages to education through Greek in Rome. The new element might be considered to be education through a language without a specific political, historical or cultural raison. This paper will take a look at developments in Europe consider in particular the role of teacher education and conclude with suggestions for framework concepts for teacher education. The paper aims to focus on teacher education for CLIL upon the background of Europe. Thus, the first step will be to take a look at developments at a European level. The next steps will be to consider consequences for practical implementation and to make some suggestions for teacher education based on perceptions from European work in the area and experience. The conclusion aims to consider the direction of developments. 1. THE PRESENT STATE OF CLIL IN EUROPE Eurydice sources provide information on educational developments in Europe and it is to these sources that those involved turn in order to gain an overview. Figure 1. Eurydice. CLIL Ch. 1 Figure

211 The map indicates the widespread implementation of CLIL in European countries. However, it must be understood that CLIL provision as part of mainstream education certainly does not mean that it is offered throughout the whole system. In some cases, this only indicates that there are schools within the state system offering a form of bilingual education or, indeed, that in some schools certain subjects are taught for a certain period through the medium of an L2. In other cases, it means a lot more. From the data, it is therefore difficult to say more than that there is a lot of some type of CLIL activity going on out there in fact, even more than the map suggests there now being indications that there are developments in countries, such as Portugal 21, appearing as CLIL-less on the map. The statistics thus reveal little about intensity or indeed quality. Neither can we see which languages are used nor where there is CLIL provision only in Primary or Secondary or both. In the context of teacher education for CLIL, this chart is of great interest. Figure 2. Eurydice. CLIL Ch. 5 Figure 5.1 From the four points given and moving from least to most relevant, I would rate them as follows in their interest for development and pedagogic discussion: Lack of appropriate teaching materials; High costs; Restrictive legislation; Shortage of appropriately qualified teachers. From my own experience in the classroom and as a teacher educator, the lack of appropriate teaching materials was indeed a problem in the late eighties and early nine- 21 According to information gathered by the e-clilt Network on CLIL 211

212 ties, i.e. at a period even before the 1995 White Paper when teachers at a grass-roots level were becoming interested. At this point, main sources were textbooks written for the Anglo-Saxon market not entirely suitable, expensive to buy, and photocopying a legal risk. With internet expansion and specifically a large number of websites offering learning materials, including CLIL materials we can no longer speak of a lack. On sites such as that of the Austrian Language Competence Centre ( the pedagogue and the student teacher find hundreds of links and further links useful for an enormous range of subject areas. The issue is currently more about how to deal with abundant material and thus directly connected to teacher education; i.e. knowledge about the underlying principles of a CLIL approach is a prerequisite for the purposeful adaptation of materials. Costs are indisputably relevant to quality in education. However, from the chart, the background is not clear. Investment in innovation would certainly contribute towards quality in teaching (teacher education, funding of teams etc.) and providing suitable materials. On the other hand, often the cost to the state plays but a small role in the implementation as it is the teachers who are investing their own time and often money. Restrictive legislation is a point of interest and clearly an approach such as CLIL cannot be implemented without the legal basis. A discussion of European legislation would go far beyond the scope of this paper. Let it just be said that interviews with teachers and teacher educators around Europe illustrate the point that teachers are certainly very wary of embarking upon approaches without a legal basis. In some countries, notably Iceland and the UK, pressure from state exams renders CLIL simply not at all feasible or not on a large-scale mainstream level. The tug-and-pull situation for teachers, which may arise from legalities, is discussed below. A shortage of appropriately qualified teachers is considered to be a relevant aspect in 14 of the 33 countries, far higher than the other three aspects. And this is an aspect to which we can contribute solutions at the level of teacher education. Again, in the document The Changing European Classroom: The Potential of Plurilingual Education (Education Council, May 2005), the need to ensure CLIL Provision and, moreover, the need for teaching training at the level of Initial Teacher Education and CPD (Continuing Professional Development) were stressed. Thus, the need is clear and identified as such. Discussions and interviews with teachers from many countries confirm that whilst there is a lot going on, adequate teacher education is rare. In the case of Austria this can only be verified. As clarified by a report compiled by the ÖSZ, there is a tremendous variety offered by teacher education institutions varying from afternoon sessions to post-graduate courses in the area of CPD. (Nezbeda, pp ) Within initial teacher education, CLIL is now recognised as a component of the future language teacher s education. However, this may also vary from a small mention during a general Methodology course to modules solidly based on research. Austria is certainly not alone in this and it is certainly an aspect to be considered. 212

213 2. BOTTOM-UP OR TOP-DOWN Educational developments that are not clearly anchored in a solid legal framework lead to a proliferation of both bottom-up and top-down movements and this may indeed lead to an imbalance. Without a clear legal framework, it is certainly possible to carry out some type of short-term, inspiring cross-curricular project work. However, once any amount of content is covered in L2, enormous problems may arise concerning testing unless regulated. From working with teachers and teacher educators in different parts of Europe, I have learnt that this is the case in many countries. However, in order to be more precise, I would like to refer to the Austrian situation by way of example. The legal basis for CLIL in Austria is a paragraph in the 1974 school education act 22. The paragraph was originally included to give a basis to instruction in a minority language and was then found to be useful in the CLIL context. On the one hand, such a basis with apparently few constraints can lead to highly positive developments. Over the years it has enabled groups of enthusiastic teachers to co-operate and develop methodology together in a fairly unbureaucratic way as a grassroots development. Much of the work is highly impressive. However, teachers in schools without special status are likely to encounter problems in connection with grading. The advice given by some regional school boards is to avoid problems by teaching in L2 and testing in L1! Since the mid-nineties there have also been cases of pressure being exercised on schools, their heads and on the teachers to implement an approach, which features well in school profiles. For instance, I have come across situations in which young teachers trained to teach a subject and with no formal training and little confidence in their own L2 competences were offered a job a desirable object in times of excess in supply - on the condition that they would teach their subject in English. Even in the apparently ideal situation where a group of enthusiastic teachers are given support by heads, perhaps funding for material etc. or time for preparation, problems may arise in staff-rooms. Without appropriate preparation and framework, not everyone is going to be happy. Furthermore, as teacher qualifications are not stipulated, there will be situations in which teachers working with CLIL are not fully competent, which in turn leads to solicitudes from the language teachers that subject teachers make mistakes and solicitudes from subject teachers that subject matter is simply too complex to be lost on playing around in L2. The legal situation is a focal issue and teachers in many countries may find themselves in problematic situations. However, individual teachers do not lay down the laws. Here again the complexities point back in the direction of teacher education. The more 22 E.g. Austria,

214 a teacher understands about issues, the better prepared s/he is to make decisions about implementation. 3. A QUESTION OF TEACHER EDUCATION AND METHODOLOGY The fact that afternoon sessions are still offered in CPD and approved by educational authorities indicates much about concepts. Thus, it could be assumed that CLIL is something that can be learnt in a couple of hours in the way that one learns how to work with a particular software programme. This again seems to be at the core of what happens in many schools. On the one hand, there are schools that have developed and also execute concepts based on theory and practice. On the other hand, there are many teaching situations in which the situation is less satisfactory. For instance, staff may have subject competence, knowledge of subject methodology and mastery of the L2, which is generally considered by the system to be enough. The result in turn is that some teachers concern themselves with the background on a voluntary basis and others do not. I am currently involved in training towards CLIL Methodology in three different settings: a postgraduate course for in-service teachers run by the University of Klagenfurt 23 ; a one-term introductory seminar for undergraduates at the University of Innsbruck, which is part of the so-called Middle Module within the Methodology course for future teachers of languages 24 ; and a CLIL module at the new Pedagogical University Tyrol 25. The course run by Klagenfurt focussed on Englisch als Arbeitssprache from before moving on to a more general focus of European and national developments in language learning and teaching and consequences for teachers and learners. CLIL is one of the threads. The two-year postgraduate course is Action-Research based, meaning that the starting point is always the expertise of the participating teachers. Input provided by the trainers aims to support further development and throughout the two-year period there is constant interplay between what has been learnt and classroom implementation. One of the most interesting aspects has thus been the teachers contributions showing that when based on sound methodologies and reflection CLIL works. Throughout the period, action-research papers written by teachers implementing CLIL demonstrated again and again that CLIL leads to intensified learning: it can enhance language skills, raise interest and can mean that teacher and students focus more strongly on specific content areas, with teachers employing multi-strategied approaches. Teachers have often concluded that content is remembered more clearly than in L1 classes, where more content had been covered. The teachers experience shows that CLIL leads to quality-learning. The pre-requisites are very carefully prepared content and linguistic strategies, reflection and the recognition of the limits. A further insight gained through the courses is that it 23 For further information: php 24 IMOF:

215 takes time, ongoing work and reflection to develop CLIL lessons: it is not simply a case of picking up a couple of didactic activities. Clearly, Action Research is not a form of quantitative evaluation. Nevertheless, there is a clear parallel between perceptions from the course and results of research carried out in Germany: The very fact that they are focussing on meaning instead of on language form and that they want to understand content seems to give them enough motivation to continue even in times of linguistic difficulties. (Vollmer) Implementing CLIL effectively is a question of CPD in the European sense. Content Communication Cognition Culture Figure 3. The 4 C s Curriculum in Dynamic Perspective Concerning the courses in undergraduate situations, I have found that the 4 C s Curriculum is still an extremely powerful instrument (e.g. CDI-BIT). It is the discussion around the interaction of the components that inspires development. Whereas CLIL methodology in the nineties often tended to stress the importance of Content above the language elements in a CLIL lesson, the essence now seems to be the constant interplay between the elements. At the beginning of the courses, students very often find the concept theoretical with little relevance for the classroom. As practical elements are worked on, the curriculum develops into a checklist for students in both the preparation and the reflective stages. A clear awareness of the role of language skills constitutes a pre-requisite for CLIL implementation and the necessity of a scheme of tasks is, for instance, expounded in Grenfell s Modern Languages across the Curriculum (Grenfell, p ). Listening Speaking Lexis Writing Reading Structures Figure 4. The Skills of CLIL Thus, whereas the CLIL lesson must not be abused by the language teacher and content pushed into a secondary role, an awareness of the functions and the opportuni- 215

216 ties is vitally important. There is great opportunity within CLIL to constantly consider the possibilities of correlation between the traditional language skills. Example: Listening as a Starting Point In the above diagram the listening skill is shown largest and foremost derived from the assumption that this is the activity to which much time is allotted whether consciously in the form of a focussed activity or simply as a general part of the lesson. The role of Listening in the CLIL context is not identical to the language classroom. 1. In the language classroom, Listening is very often considered to be the activity solely connected with recordings and specific tasks a standard activity, which superseded Listening Comprehensions, i.e. written texts being read aloud. 2. The CLIL context provokes thought. Subject teachers using an L2 in classes with a language level of B1 and below are immediately confronted by a dilemma or a set of questions: How much can I say in the target language? Can I carry out standard classroom instructions, general introductory chat etc. in the target language without causing too much confusion or wasting time that should be spent on the subject per se? In L1 subject lessons, I would impart certain subject information through lecturing. What do I have to do in the new situation? Will they understand? Which strategies should I employ? The final issue is the highly relevant to subject teaching and opens up an alternative view on Listening. Moreover, many teachers who have posed these questions realise that the issues are also relevant for L1 lessons but often only become clear through experience in an L2. This, in turn, leads to the consideration that strategies not only need to be worked out clearly for the B1 learner, but also for those above this level. 3. As many European countries move more closely towards the testing of Standards in Modern Languages, Listening is becoming an isolated skill. That is to say that we now have test formats (e.g. ticking boxes according to set criteria, filling in charts single lexical items, numbers, addresses etc. 26 ) which test Listening effectively, but do not allow language learners to react and interact with what they have heard. The necessity to establish both standards in language learning and appropriate assessment methods is indisputable. Nevertheless, language learning is vibrant and has more to offer on a cognitive level. The CLIL context is one context, which offers opportunities for thoughtful discussion. As above, a lack of teaching material was a general obstacle to CLIL in the past and this was particularly the case concerning Listening materials for subject areas. Podcasting 26 C.f. task examples given by the Austrian Centre for Language Competence, e.g., at/ sub_main.php?lnk=arbeitsbereiche 216

217 has changed this situation completely. I would like to illustrate by referring to a particular Podcast, which appeared in the Guardian last July 27. Well, my starting point is that I m just terrified about climate change as many of us are these days and it s a fact that each new UK birth will be responsible for 160 times more greenhouse gas emissions than say a new birth in Ethiopia. Now there are two ways of looking at that, 3 ways really. One is to say that we rich people in the UK must enormously reduce our consumption of resources, but also it is a fact that each of us is doing a 160 times more damage, then not having a UK birth is 160 times more beneficial to the planet than there not being an Ethiopian birth. Now, what I, what we say in our organisation the Population Trust, is that the greenest energy is the energy you don t use and one way of not using it, is to cut down your consumption and buy a smaller car or preferably not using a car at all and to go everywhere by bicycle and train like I do, but also a really green thing to do is to have one child less than you otherwise might have had because every additional child born in the UK produces in its lifetime 3 million miles worth of carbon dioxide as driven in a Toyota, so the benefit of not having a birth in the UK is huge. This is the first 1.26 minutes of a 4.43 minute Podcast, in which Guillebaud goes on to expound on possibilities of family pools. One cannot read the text without the urge to react (C.f. Lundahl) and when listening, this urge is heightened by tone of voice and accent. Such materials place listening back into the real-life circle: Listening Reacting Speaking Writing as opposed to being only a test-focussed activity. The potential for such materials when subject areas such as Citizenship and Sustainability are integrated through co-operation with subject specialists is enormous. CONCLUDING REMARKS: SUBJECT-INTERDISCIPLINARITY AT SCHOOL AND IN TEACHER EDUCATION Interdisciplinary/cross-curricular teaching involves a conscious effort to apply knowledge, principles, and/or values to more than one academic discipline simultaneously. The disciplines may be related through a central theme, issue, problem, process, topic, or experience (cited by Pikulsiki, J and Cooper, J). Even today s undergraduates, whose school experience lies just around four years back, still often have the concept of Landeskunde in mind. This is to say that they experienced language classes in which the language teacher with no specific subject background would do a bit of History, Geography, Biology, etc. The question, Isn t that CLIL? is raised again and again. It takes time for students to understand the consequences when one discipline is based on deep understanding and the second at a much more superficial level. Subject specialists are often equally amazed that a working knowledge of the L2 is not enough Professor, University College, London. 217

218 There has been a tendency to place CLIL teacher education within language departments meaning that the Content can only be dealt with in a somewhat amateur way. At present we are working on more intensive co-operation with subject methodologists. Within the IMOF Module this means that opportunities are provided for students to prepare and hold lessons in schools with teachers who are subject specialists but not necessarily language specialists. This provides opportunities for both perspectives. The PHT model gives students the opportunity to experience learning in their second subject through L2. This course is obligatory for all second-year students training to teach at lower secondary level. Two thirds of the face-to-face time and workload are devoted to CLIL principles, whilst one third of the time is set aside for work in an L2 in the student s second subject. Co-operations between language and subject specialists over the next years promise to be interesting and, as the above courses exemplify, there is movement in this direction. A further initiative in this direction is the work being done by the Comenius Network: Common Constitution & Language Learning. One of the main aims of the Network is the development and trialling of learning materials for citizenship education by subject experts, which will then be adapted for CLIL situations. The co-operations promise great things for pedagogical developments! References 1. White Paper on Education and Training. Teaching and Learning. Towards the Learning Society. Available at: Accessed Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) at school in Europe. Eurydice Available at: Accessed C s Curriculum. Developed through the BILD Project and further evolved and disseminated within CDI-BIT: 4. Austrian Language Competence Centre. Accessed CCLL-Network. Common Constitution & Language Learning. Accessed E-CLILT Network: Accessed Dalton Puffer, Christiane. Outcomes and processes in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL): current research from Europe. to appear in: Werner Delanoy and Laurenz Volkmann, (eds.) Future Perspectives for English Language, Teaching. Heidelberg: Carl Winter. Available at: pdf Accessed Grenfell, Mike, ed. Modern Languages Across the Curriculum. London Lechner, Christine. English as a Working Language: responding to the Challenge. In: ELT ews, October Vienna. 218

219 10. Lundahl, Bo. Reading & Listening. Contributed to CDI-BIT Project Accessed Nezbeda, Margarete. Überblicksdaten und Wissenswertes zu Fremdsprache als Arbeitssprache. EAA Servicehefte 6. Publication of Österreichisches Sprachen-Kompetenz-Zentrum, Graz pdf Accessed From Issues in Literacy Development by Pikulsiki, J and Cooper, J. eduplace. com/rdg/res/literacy/ Accessed Vollmer, Helmut Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL): A special case of Language Across the Curriculum (LAC). Santrauka Integruotas dalyko ir užsienio kalbos mokymas europinės naujovės, skatinančios įgūdžiais paremto modelio taikymą mokytojų rengime Christine Lechner Ar mokymas yra tik vietinės reikšmės klausimas? Integruotame dalyko ir užsienio kalbos mokyme galime rasti absoliučiai vietinės reikšmės pasiekimų platesniame europiniame judėjime. Straipsnio tikslas parodyti sąveiką tarp Europos kalbų mokymo politikos, susijusios su dalyko ir kalbos mokymu, ir šios politikos įgyvendinimo įvairiose Europos šalyse, tame tarpe ir Austrijoje. Šiuo metu yra svarbu pereiti nuo strateginio lygmens prie konkrečių procesų, jų poveikio, praktinės veiklos analizės, taip pat mokyklos lygmens inovacijų, mokytojų parengimo darbui šioje srityje ir gautų rezultatų analizės. Kai kurie parinkti pavyzdžiai yra orientuoti į veiklą klasėje. Todėl pirmoje straipsnio dalyje didesnis dėmesys skiriamas bendriesiems dalykams, o antrojoje dalyje koncentruojamasi ties metodologijų, susijusių su pilietiškumo temomis, o ypač ilgalaikiu jo ugdymu, galimybėmis. Autorė aprašo, kaip sąveikaujantys kalbos mokymo įgūdžiai gali funkcionuoti dalyko ir kalbos integruotame mokyme, o taip pat atkreipia dėmesį į leksikos ir struktūros vaidmenį šiame procese. 219

220 Zur Optimierung der pädagogischdidaktischen Prämissen gelingenden Fremdsprachenlehrens und lernens. Eine Vergleichsstudie zwischen den USA und Schweden 28 Abstract Joachim Liedtke Hochschule Kristianstad, SE Kristianstad, Schweden, The optimization of foreign language teaching and learning depends not only on the didactics and methodology for the particular subject, but also on the general pedagogical qualifications of the teachers. The purpose of this study is to ascertain the students expectations of the key criteria which determine the quality of the teaching and learning processes. An additional aim is to expose and compare potential intercultural effects on the pedagogical criteria. The study focuses on the comparison of the USA (St. Olaf College) and Sweden (Kristianstad University College). Key-words: Sprachunterricht, Perspektive der Studierenden in den USA und Schweden, Qualitätskriterien, pädagogische Kompetenz EINLEITUNG Spätestens seitdem im Jahre 1882 also vor mehr als 125 Jahren Wilhelm Viëtors Pamphlet Der Sprachunterricht muss umkehren! die Debatte entfacht hat, sind die Diskussionen über die am besten für den Fremdsprachenunterricht geeignete Methode nicht mehr verstummt. Zudem wurde die Auseinandersetzung mit der möglich gewordenen Einbindung technischer Innovationen in den fremdsprachlichen Unterricht noch weiter belebt. Zwar gelten Sprachlabor und audiovisuelles Equipment nicht länger als Quintessenz der Methodenoptimierung, doch sind die Vor- und Nachteile des Einsatzes von Lernsoftware und Internet weiterhin heftig umstritten. 29 Im Zuge dieser starken 28 Danksagung. Die vorliegende Arbeit ist Teil einer Untersuchung zur Steigerung der Lehr- und Lernqualität im Rahmen eines halbjährigen Arbeitsaufenthaltes während des akademischen Jahres 2004/05 als International Research Scholar am St. Olaf College in Minnesota. Für die Finanzierung dieses Gastaufenthaltes innerhalb des Programms Excellence in Teaching danke ich der Stiftung STINT The Swedish Foundation of International Cooperation in Research and Higher Education, Stockholm. 29 Vgl. Bush, M.D. (2008): Computer-Assisted Language Learning: From Vision to Reality? 220

221 Konzentration auf die methodischen Aspekte der Fremdsprachendidaktik wurden die pädagogischen Gesichtspunkte und die Relevanz der Bildung für das Fremdsprachenlehren und lernen im professionellen Unterricht zunehmend an den Rand gedrängt und nicht selten nahezu aus den Augen verloren. Tab. 1: Pädagogik Didaktik Methodik Erst in jüngster Zeit scheint sich hier eine Kehrtwende anzukündigen. 30 Der vorliegende Beitrag verfolgt das Ziel, diese pädagogisch-didaktischen Relationen wieder stärker ins Zentrum der Diskussion zu stellen. Dabei soll schwerpunktmäßig die Fokussierung aus der Perspektive der Studierenden in den USA und Schweden in den Vordergrund gerückt werden. 1. METHODE Grundlage bildet eine Vergleichsstudie, die auf den Antworten amerikanischer und schwedischer Studierender beruht, die im Rahmen einer quantitativ konzipierten Befragung gebeten geworden waren, die ihrer Ansicht nach wichtigsten Kriterien für exzellenten Unterricht zu benennen. Diese Enquete-Studie wurde an zwei Orten durchgeführt: (1) am St. Olaf College in Northfield, Minnesota, USA im Februar 2005 und (2) an der Hochschule Kristianstad (Kristianstad University College) in Schweden im September Das St. Olaf College ein privates so genanntes Liberal Arts College und zählt in dieser Kategorie zu den besten Ausbildungsstätten der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika. 31 St. Olaf unterstreicht ausdrücklich den Begriff der akademischen Exzellenz als zentrales Ausbildungsstatut:»The college intends that its graduates combine academic excellence and theological literacy with a commitment of lifelong learning«(st. Olaf College, 2004/06, 6). Insgesamt sind ca Studierende immatrikuliert, die ein vierjähriges Studium Generale absolvieren, das mit dem Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) bzw. dem Bachelor of Music (B.Mus.) abgeschlossen werden kann. Rein rechnerisch unterrichtet eine Lehrkraft im Durchschnitt 12,5 Studierende (student-faculty ratio). Die Studierenden leben während der gesamten Studienzeit auf dem Campusgelände, wo sich nicht nur die Studentenwohnheime, sondern auch eine Mensa, ein weiteres Restaurant, eine Pizzeria und 30 Vgl. Euler, P. (2003): Bildung als kritische Kategorie. 31 Vgl. U.S.News & World Report (2008), America s Best Colleges New York. 221

222 ein Café befinden. Außerdem gibt es ein College-Theater, eine Kirche sowie großzügig konzipierte Sportanlagen, in denen ein umfangreiches Off-Class-Bildungs-, Kultur- u. Freizeitprogramm angeboten wird. Die anfallenden Studiengebühren belaufen sich auf $ (ca ) pro Jahr. 32 Die Hochschule Kristianstad ist eine von 36 staatlichen Hochschulen und Universitäten Schwedens. 33 Zu den Ausbildungsschwerpunkten zählt neben weiteren Spezialprogrammen die Lehrerausbildung. Laut einer Evaluation, die 2007 vom schwedischen Högskoleverket (Swedish National Agency for Higher Education) durchgeführt wurde, 34 zählt die Hochschule Kristianstad zu den besten Lehrerausbildungsstätten des gesamten Landes. In Kristianstad sind ca Studierende immatrikuliert, von denen ein nicht unerheblicher Anteil im Rahmen von internetgestützten Distanzkursen studiert und somit physisch nicht oder nur sporadisch auf dem Campus präsent ist. Auf dem Campusgelände gibt es eine Bibliothek, eine Sporthalle, ein Restaurant und Café, die Studentenvertretung sowie einige benachbarte Studentenwohnheime und unterkünfte. Die Hochschule garantiert allen eingeschriebenen Studierenden eine Wohnmöglichkeit, die teils in unmittelbarer Campusnähe, teils im wenige Kilometer entfernten Zentrum von Kristianstad liegen. Wie in Schweden üblich, werden auch für das Studium an der Hochschule Kristianstad keine Studiengebühren erhoben. 35 Die zentrale Enquete-Frage an die teilnehmenden Studierenden beider Ausbildungsstätten lautete:»what do you think are the three most important characteristics of Excellence in Teaching? (No. 1 as most important)«. Um die gegebenen Antworten mit der jeweiligen Studienerfahrung und eventuellen geschlechtsspezifischen Merkmalen in Beziehung setzen zu können, wurde auch das Geschlecht erfasst und zusätzlich nach der Anzahl der bereits absolvierten Studienjahre gefragt. Auf diese speziellen geschlechtsund studienspezifischen Aspekte und Detailergebnisse kann jedoch an dieser Stelle aus Platzgründen nicht näher eingegangen werden. Stattdessen konzentriert sich das vorliegende Papier auf die primär von den Studierenden genannten pädagogisch-didaktischen Qualitätskriterien. Am St. Olaf College wurde die Befragung via durchgeführt; an der Hochschule Kristianstad erfolgte sie durch persönliche Ausgabe und Einsammlung der Enquete-Formulare am Rande von Großvorlesungen im Auditorium Maximum. Die vollständige Liste der von den amerikanischen Studierenden genannten Kriterien umfasst 1095 Begriffe. In Kristianstad wurden insgesamt 810 Begriffe genannt $/Jahr (Unterricht) $/Jahr (Unterkunft/Verpflegung); Stand 2008/ Universitäten, 22 Hochschulen; daneben existieren einige weitere spezielle Ausbildungsstätten auf Hochschulniveau. 34 Vgl. Högskoleverket (2008). 35 Die Summe der staatlichen Finanzierung ist studienfachabhängig und beträgt in den Geisteswissenschaften ca SEK (1.890 ) und in den Naturwissenschaften ca SEK (ca ) pro Jahr und Vollzeitstudent. 222

223 Tab. 2: Gegenüberstellung St. Olaf College (USA) Hochschule Kristianstad (Schweden) RESULTATE Die systematische Auswertung aller elizitierten Daten ergibt nach Subsumierung synonymer Ausdrücke die folgenden Ranglisten der am häufigsten genannten Kriterien, die nach Auffassung der Studierenden besonders ausschlaggebend für exzellente Lehre sind (separat aufgeführt für St. Olaf und Kristianstad, vgl. Tab. 3 u. 4). Tab. 3: Rangordnung der am häufigsten genannten Kriterien (St. Olaf College, USA) 223

224 Tab. 4: Rangordnung der am häufigsten genannten Kriterien (Hochschule Kristianstad, Schweden) Bereits auf den ersten Blick offenbart der Vergleich beider Listen gewisse Gemeinsamkeiten wie auch deutliche Kontraste. Übereinstimmend bewerten sowohl die amerikanischen wie auch die schwedischen Studierenden das Kriterium Kenntnisse/Wissen der lehrenden Person (engl. knowledge ; schwed. kunskap ) als zentrale Grundvoraussetzung für erfolgreichen Unterricht (St. Olaf: Rangplatz 2; Kristianstad: Rang 1). Eine weitere Deckungsgleichheit, die jedoch eine interessante Nuance aufweist, bezieht sich auf die gezeigte Lehrbegeisterung. Die amerikanischen Studierenden nennen hier mit größter Häufigkeit (Rang 1) die Begriffe enthusiastisch/leidenschaftlich (enthusiastic/passionate). Unter allen schwedischen Antworten wird das Kriterium Enthusiasmus dagegen nur ein einziges Mal erwähnt, oft genannt wird stattdessen das Charakteristikum Engagement (Rang 2; vgl. Tab. 4). Offensichtlich kommen hier kulturell bedingte Einflüsse zum Tagen, nach denen eine enthusiastische Haltung den eher reserviert auftretenden Skandinaviern übertrieben erscheint. Dies wird oft damit begründet, dass Mentalität und Verhaltensmuster in Skandinavien vom so genannten Jantegesetz geprägt sind; 36 einer Art Verhaltenskodex, nach dem es als unangemessen angesehen wird, sich selbst als besser und klüger als andere darzustellen. 37 Ein überraschende Verteilung zeigen die am häufigsten genannten Kriterien auf den folgenden Rangplätzen im Vergleich der amerikanischen und schwedischen Daten. Dies wird besonders deutlich, wenn die einzelnen Charakteristika den Hauptkomponenten zugeordnet werden, welche die Lehr- und Lernprozesse prägen: (I) Lernstoffe, (II) Lehrende und (III) Lerner. In der Rangliste vom St. Olaf College dominieren vor allem Kriterien, welche die sozialen Relationen zwischen Lehrenden und Lernenden kennzeichnen. Dazu zählen die Wunschkriterien fürsorglich, erreichbar, geduldig, kommunikativ, verständnisvoll, 36 Vgl. Rømhild, L.P./Schack, M. (2004). 37 Das Jantegesetz beruht auf Aksel Sandemoses (1933) Roman Ein Flüchtling kreuzt seine Spur, in dem zehn Regeln des sozialen Umgangs postuliert werden, u.a. Regel 3: Du sollst nicht glauben, dass du klüger bist als wir und Regel 10: Du sollst nicht glauben, dass du uns etwas beibringen kannst. 224

225 respektvoll. Unter den zehn meistgenannten Begriffen finden sich nur zwei Eigenschaften, die den Lernstoffen sowie deren Aufbereitung und Präsentation zuzuordnen sind: organisiert, klar (vgl. Fig. 1). Fig. 1: Zuordnung der meistgenannten Qualitätskriterien (St. Olaf College, USA) Ein deutliche abweichende Gewichtung weist dagegen die Zuordnung der meistgenannten Qualitätskriterien der schwedischen Studierenden auf (vgl. Fig. 2). Qualitätskriterien der schwedischen Studierenden auf (vgl. Fig. 2). Fig. 2: Zuordnung der meistgenannten Qualitätskriterien (Hochschule Kristianstad, Schweden) 225

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